Perspectives of Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Trainee reactions to learner control: an important link in the e-learning equation

2012-02-03T14:53:00.000-08:00

Summary by Ian B. Mondrow, PHR

The evolution of e-learning technology has revolutionized employee development for corporations due to its convenience, electronic record keeping and learning management. The benefits to e-learning include reduced delivery cycle time, more convenience for learners and consistency within training among locations. E-learning also opens the opportunity for learner control, or the degree to which a learner is given control over the course features including pace, content and structure of courses. This allows the learner to modify the learning experience to their liking. It may also assist in comprehension of learning content because a learner is able to review unclear information or provide additional details on areas of interest.

In this quasi-experimental study, 237 undergraduate students at a large public university in the Eastern United States were recruited as participants. Participants were put into one of two groups: training with interactive features (no learner control) or training with or without interactive offered at the learner’s choice (learner control). Participants in the group with learner control were asked if they would like to complete the course with interactive controls. 8 individuals in the learner control group opted out of using learner controls and therefore were not included in analysis. In the sample offered learner control, users could chose the number and order of videos to view, utilization of a video progress bar, interactive transcripts, access to an interactive outline and pop-up windows to highlight key learning points.

Reactions to control-based features offered were evaluated using 10 items developed by the researchers to measure affective-based reactions and utility-based reactions on a 5-point scale. Affective-based reactions were used to measure the emotional responses from participants (i.e. if they liked it, annoyed by it, etc.) while utility-based actions are based on their perceived ease of use (i.e. difficult, easy, etc.). In addition, four items were used to measure learner satisfaction on a five-point scale. Finally, learning was measured using a multiple choice knowledge assessment with 12 questions.

Participants completed the study during a regular class period of their management class and completed the course with 20-35 people in the room at the same time. Results showed that were was no correlation between control condition and satisfaction as the statistical analysis was not significant. However, a statistically significant correlation was found between learner control and trainee reactions (r = .13, p < .05), suggesting that learner controls created an experience that had more positive reactions. An independent samples t-test confirmed the difference between the two learning conditions, t (225) = -2.00, p <.05), with the no control condition (m = 3.58) and control condition (m = 3.74). It was also found learner satisfaction was positively related to course reactions (r = .42, p < .01). Training satisfaction was then examined to determine if it positively affected learning satisfaction. Findings were significant using a hierarchical regression on training program satisfaction and learner GPA (β = .14, ΔR²=.02, p <.05).

The study introduces a variety of findings. First off, it shows that overall satisfaction is not enhanced by control but participants are more likely to prefer an e-learning program with learner control, even if makes the training more complex. As a result of the findings, learners are likely to be more satisfied with a learning course that provides control, thus increasing the overall perception of learning. However, several limitations are present in this study. First off, the sample used is composed of college students, who are generally accustom to web-based technology. In addition, they are not working professionals so their preferences for learning may be different. Furthermore, the study only included students from one university, and therefore cannot be applied to the population.

IMPLICATONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS

The study introduces some fascinating findings that are applicable to both training and instructional design professionals. It shows that learners like to feel as though they are control of the online training. To increase the overall reactions, it is suggested to provide learners with a variety of options within e-learning modules. This can include the option to obtain additional information, controlling the speed of the presentation, and providing different learning options (i.e. audio transcripts, outlines, etc.), and the order of information.

These findings show how important it is for organizations to utilize instructional designers. Instead of just creating a basic slideshow, instructional designers can create innovative online courses that grant learners more control of the content. Instructional designers are knowledgeable about the tools offered in software, such as Adobe Captivate or Articulate, and can design intricate learning.

One easy way to achieve learner control is develop e-learning that is not sequential. Therefore, learners can cover different sections of the training as long as they complete it all. This allows learners to first learn about the content that appeals to them most. Online training should not feel like participants are watching a slideshow that only allows them to move forward. Give learners the option to replay, review and pause. This can be easily achieved by providing a table of contents on the side of the training. This allows for easier navigation for the learner.

If learners are offered online courses that provide them more control, it may be suggested that learners feel more empowered in their learning; thus, resulting in more positive reactions towards training offered and increasing their satisfaction of the overall learning experience. This is crucial for learning organizations that emphasize employee development and want their employees to continue to utilize learning resources.

Source: Fisher, S.L., Wasserman, M.E., Orvis K.A. (2010). Trainee reactions to learner control: an important link in the e-learning equation. International Journal of Training and Development, 14 (3), 198-208.

Understanding Participation in E-Learning in Organizations: a Large-Scale Empirical Study

2011-12-29T17:58:00.000-08:00

Summary and Commentary by Ian B. Mondrow

In 2009, it was estimated that the training industry was worth $90 billion worldwide (ASTD, 2009 as cited in Garavan, Carbery, O’Malley and O’Donnell, 2010). $20 billon was focused primarily on e-learning (Patterson et al.,2 009 as cited by Garavan et al., 2010). In the UK alone, it is estimated that the e-learning business will increase 8-15% per annum. This increased interest is the reason that e-learning has become a popular topic in academic research.

E-learning is education that is supplied and facilitated through modern technology with the intent of employee development. As e-learning has increased in popularity, several concerns have been identified, including: poor participation, increased drop-outs, and e-learning acting as a sole source of learning. Garavan, Carbery, O’Malley O’Donnell (2010) sought out to examine a several variables that may impact the participation of employees in e-learning training (the dependent variable). These are listed and defined below:

General-person characteristics – The general demographics of a population. In this specific study, it focuses on age, gender, education level, years of experience, mobility experiences and organizational tenure.
Instructional Design Characteristics - Characteristics of e-learning that include the quality of the content, quality of facilitation, allotted time and the option to provide feedback or receive additional support.
Motivation to learn – An individual’s motivation to learn reflects the extent to which an individual is interested in participating in a training and utilizing the knowledge acquired.
Self-efficacy – An employee’s perception of his/her ability to participate in e-learning.
Perceived barriers and enablers – Events or conditions that can hinder or encourage the participation in e-learning activities.

Surveys were administered to 275 Irish organizations with a response rate of 557 individuals. 40% of these individuals worked for a multinational organization that were Irish owned. Participants had the option to complete the survey online or mail in a paper copy. The survey asked for responses on a 5 point scale (1 strong disagree/low importance; 5 strongly agree/high importance) with 16 items evaluating motivation to learn, 13 items to measure self-efficiency, 32 items to review perceived barriers and enablers, 12 items reflecting on the instructional design of e-learning. Participation in learning was measured by asking participants if they had participated AND completed any e-learning sessions in the past year.

General-person characteristics (β = .12, p < .05) shared a positive relationship with participation in e-learning. More specifically, positive small relationships existed between social class (β = .10, p < .05) and participation. Job tenure (β -.12, p < .05) also had a minor relationship to e-learning participation. Several negative relationships were also present for the following variables: age (β = -.42, p < .05) and company tenure (β = -.14, p < .05).

Instructional design characteristics (β = .11 p < .05) had significant relationships to participation. Motivation to learn also had a relationship to participation. After further examination, it was found that content quality (β = .15, p < .05) and feedback/recognition (β = .11, p < .05) shared a weak relationship with e-learning participation.

Furthermore, motivation (β = .49, p < .05) shared a moderate relationship with e-learning participation. Social support and self efficacy (β = .37 , p < .05) were found to have a positive relationship with learning participation but situational constraints (β = -.32, p < .05) shared a negative relationship with participation.

The findings show that motivation to learn had the strongest relationship to course participation. Motivation can be influenced by creating a culture that encourages employees to be continuous learners and regularly provides them with learning opportunities. In addition, if leadership and management demonstrate this behavior, employees will be more likely to see the value of education and be more motivated to participate in e-learning. All of the other findings support the notion that training needs to be applicable to the job, easy to understand, and engaging.

Overall, the study had a large population of data to work with, which is a rare quality of academic articles. However, one limitation of the study is that the data was collected using self-reprots from participants. Therefore, there is a possibility of bias from study participants.

As a reader, there were several additional concerns that were noticed. What was most shocking was to find several typos in an article published in an academic journal. There were several instances where the wrong letter was missing or the numbers did not match up to the wording. This raises some questions regarding the validity of the journal and the article. If it was able to be published with these mistakes, what does it say about the researchers attention to detail when implementing the experiment, entering data and conducting analysis. One must question if their results are truly accurate.

IMPLICATONS FOR HUMAN RESOURCES PROFESSIONALS

While there are some valid concerns about the articles creditability, it introduces some interesting findings.

First and foremost, it identifies that e-learning may not be appropriate for all audiences. There is a possibility that older employees may benefit more from classroom training. Therefore, it is would be an organization’s best interest to determine their intended audience for all training before it is implemented in e-learning. A training is no help if the intended audience has no interest in its training approach.

It also identifies that learner motivation is crucial for participation in e-learning. Therefore, for an organization to ensure the e-learning courses are being utilized, it is vital to instill a culture that encourages employees to take the initiative in their own professional development. Management should work closely with employees to help them with developmental plans so they are aware of what training they need to grow. Company executives should also demonstrate the importance of learning by regularly discussing its value, participating in professional associations and participating in learning opportunities within the company. An organization that does not communicate this is likely to have employees with less motivation and interest in utilizing the available e-learning courses.

The study also demonstrates the importance of appropriate instructional design. Employees need to ensure that they are receiving the content they need to be successful in their role at the organization. However, there are two levels to content: (1) offering the right courses and (2) providing accurate and easy to understand information. The best way to achieve both of these is to conduct a needs assessment before designing any training. A needs assessment will help to determine if a training will assist employees in their job or if there is a solution outside of training that would be more efficient. During a needs assessment, a designer will also work with subject matter experts to understand the content. This is an opportunity for the designer to ensure that learners will get the information that is applicable to their job and the organization. In addition, learners should have the option to provide feedback on training to allow instructional designers to make needed updates. Employee feedback is crucial for employees to continue using e-learning because they want to ensure that their voice is being heard.

Source: Garavan, T.N., Carvery, R., O’Malley, G., & O’Donnell, D. (2010). Understanding participation in e-learning in organizations: a large-scale empirical study of employees. International Journal of Training and Development, 14 (3), 155- 168).

Examining the Job Search - Turnover Relationship: The Role of Embeddedness, Job Satisfaction & Available Alternatives

2011-10-19T11:33:00.000-07:00

Summary & Commentary by Ian Mondrow, M.A.

A Job search is defined as "the actions of an individual to generate job opportunities in other organization" (Swider, Boswell & Zimmerman, 2011). The relationship between job searching and turnover is based on the notion that a job search reveals alternative employment opportunities. This search identifies favorable alternatives, thus resulting in turn over. Previous research by Griffeth, Hom & Gaertner (2000) demonstrated a positive relationship between job search behaviors and turnover, which accounted for 7% of the variance. Swider, Boswell, & Zimmerman (2011) sought out to examine the search efforts of currently employed individuals. Their study focuses only on voluntary turnover and examines embeddedness, job satisfaction and employment alternatives.

Job embeddedness includes stable forces that refrain employees from seeking alternatives and are broken into three subdimensions: Links (i.e. formal or informal connections), fit (i.e. alignment with organizational culture), and sacrifice (i.e. the cost of tangible or intangible benefits that would be forfeited by resignation). Job embeddedness is defined as the ease at which an employee can be without these subdimensions. In other words, the more difficult it is to be without these ties, the less likely an employee will separate from the organization.

Job satisfaction is the affective and/or attitudinal reaction to the job and its responsibilities. Previous research promotes two models regarding job satisfaction: (1) dissatisfied workers will have a increased desire to seek opportunities with increased likelihood of accepting an alternative and (2) job seekers with low satisfaction are more likely to seek other opportunities with the intent to leave.

Job alternatives is defined as the available opportunities to employees that they are both qualified for and willing to accept. Alternative opportunities may entice employees away from organization and may be a contributing factor in their turnover decision. These opportunities are heavily based on the job market and can fluctuate with the economy.

Griffeth, Hom & Gaertner collected a study sample of staff employees are a large university located in the southwest of the United States. 3,600 individuals were invited to participate in a survey via e-mail. The survey measured job embeddedness using the 31 items from Lee et. al.'s (2004) six job embeddedness dimensions. It measured job satisfaction using 24 items from Spector's (1985) job satisfaction survey. Available alternatives were collected utilizing a weighted average of the nation and local employment level from BLS.gov. Voluntary turnover was collected from the organization's record over an 18 month period.

The study ended up with a total of 895 completed responses. 68% of the participants were female. The race/ethnicity distribution of participants can be seen in Figure 1. Since the dependent variable was dichotomous, a hierarchal moderated logistic regression was conducted. Results showed that all three two-way interactions produced a significant model improvement, X(3) = 13.54, p < .01. Search-job satisfaction and search-available alternatives were also statistically significant at p < .05.

Based on the results, it was determined to examine each two-way interaction independently:

Job search - turnover & job embeddedness: The test was conducted by entering the control variables at step 1, main effects and job embeddedness at step 2 and the interaction in step 3. Step 2 produced a significant chi-squared model improvement, x(2) = 76.62, p < .01, with a significant main effect for job search (p < .01). Adding the search embeddedness interaction produced a marginally significant model improvement, x(1) = 2.94, p = .08. Based on these results, the relationship between job search and turnover was stronger with those who experienced low job embeddedness.

Job search - turnover & job satisfaction: Control variables were entered in step 1, the main effects of job search and job satisfaction in step 2. This produced a significant chi-square model improvement, X(2) = 77.09, p < .01. The interaction was added at step 3 and produced a significant model improvement, X(1) = 9.56, p < .01. These results suggest that turnover was significantly higher for individuals who conducted high levels of job search activity and had low job satisfaction when compared to individuals with similar job search activity and high job satisfaction.

Job search - turnover and available alternatives: Control variables were entered into step 1, main effects for job search and available alternatives were entered into step 2, and the interaction in step 3. Step 2 produced a significant chi-square model improvement, X(2) = 76.60, p < .01. After adding the interaction, a significant chi-square model improvement was present, X(1) = 4.19, p < .05. The results reveal that when more jobs available, turnover is increased.

Overall, the results revealed that job search activity was increased when employees were less embedded, had lower job satisfaction and more employment opportunities were present. Based on the findings of the research, one can conclude that retention strategies that are not targeted are ineffective. Instead, it is beneficial for organizations to regular assess and oversee employee work attitudes. Organizations need to examine market trends to determine where the greatest risk and implement organization initiatives to reduce the likelihood of turnover.

A variety of limitations exist in this study. First and foremost, the study was conducted on one organization and therefore can't be applied to the population. Furthermore, the sample was from a public organization and therefore results may differ in the private sector. The surveys were also self-reported which increase the risk of bias.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS

The authors of this article suggest that if an employee is exhibiting high levels of search activity, it may be beneficial for a manager or HR profession to approach them & discuss their concerns. This can be a valuable approach if it is implemented properly. When approaching employees, one should always be supportive and emphasize how valuable they are the organization. Ask for their feedback and listen to them more instead of talking. It is also important to understand that turnover happens and you can't stop every employee from leaving. The best approach is collect information to prevent other employees from leaving and do what you can to improve the work situation for the employee who is considering resignation.

The best approach for any organization is a proactive retention strategy. If employees have already started to actively explore new opportunities, it can be considered too late. One of the most affective strategies is to regularly survey employees on the organizational culture, job satisfaction, and how they perceive their position/organization compared to other companies. The data from these surveys can help HR professionals assess the organizational strengths and the areas that need improvement. However, just surveying employees is not sufficient. HR professionals need to share the results of the survey to employees and take action on the results. Failure to do result will produce counterproductive results of the survey and a decreased amount of participation in the next survey.

Exit interviews are also a valuable source of information when a company is experiencing turnover. Unlike other surveys, these results should not be communicated to the organization but when action is taken, employees should be able to notice the difference.

When the job market is competitive, it is especially important for organizations to show value to their employees. However, failure to recognize employees in a job market with low alternatives can still result in turnover. Talented employees are generally unaffected by the economy and are likely to be the first ones to leave. Futhermore, when the economy improves, employees will be more likely to jump ship based on how they were treated in the past. Therefore, it is important for organizations to continually evaluate the perspectives of their employees and strive to provide the best workplace for all employees.

Source: Swider, B.W., Boswell, W.R., Zimmerman, R.D. (2011). Examining the job search-turnover relationship: the role of embeddedness, job satisfaction and available alternatives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96 (2), 432-441.

Assessing the Influence of Psychosocial and Career Mentoring on Organizational Attractiveness

2011-09-19T21:56:00.000-07:00

Summary and Commentary by Ian Mondrow, M.A.

Today, organizations receive hundreds of resumes from both qualified and under-qualified individuals. Although there is an abundance of jobseekers, the war for top talent is still intense. Organizations want the best of the best and therefore they need to be innovative and strategic when sourcing talent. Over the past decade, companies such as Siemens and Daimler-Chrysler have developed mentoring programs to proactively recruit potential talent. However, mentoring is a time consuming process which can also be costly and many organizations attempt to simplify this process by providing all mentoring via internet. Overall, there is limited research on the effectiveness of student-mentoring programs and little knowledge of the impact of providing these programs remotely. Spitzmuller, Neumann, Spitzmuller, Rubino, Keeton, Sutton and Manzey (2008) set out to examine the differences between virtual and face-to-face mentoring and also how these programs impact organizational attractive, intentions to pursue and the acceptance of employment at the mentoring organization.

In an attempt to do, the researchers established a partnership with a German company that focuses on identifying students for partner organizations and the establishing of mentoring relationships between students and mentors. Students' participation was selected based on their majors, past experience and academic experiences. In addition to the mentorship, the organization provided career-related programs and events among participants.

18 organizations nominated mentors to participate in this program. All mentors created an electronic profile that could be accessed by fellow participants, who would submit applications to mentors of their interest. Mentors would then be provided the profiles of interested applicants and selected the students they wish to mentor. After selecting students, mentors participated in a formal mentoring program that was done via internet and/or in paper form. There was no set guidelines for mentors but the partner organization informed them that average mentoring time involved 2-3 hours a month. Mentors were not assigned more than 5 students.

The researchers worked with the partnering organization to develop a short web-based survey that was emailed to all students. Participants were rewarded by the opportunity to participate in a raffle. Overall, 194 students completed the survey, with a response rate of 32.3%. The survey measured several factors including: psychosocial & career mentoring, realistic job previews, method of mentoring (face-to-face vs. internet), organization attraction, intentions to pursue, and attainment of a job at the mentoring organization.

56.7% of students claimed they spoke with their mentor every 6 weeks and 19.1% reported communicating biweekly or more often. All communication methods involved use of internet, therefore no relationship was primarily based on face-to-face interaction.

Two regressions were conducted. The first regression predicted organizational attractiveness from psychosocial functions and realistic job previews. It was found that perception of psychosocial mentoring was a significant predictor of organizational attractiveness (β = .27, p < .05) and the intent to pursue employment (β = .29, p < .01).The second regression sought to determine if career functions were a predictor of organizational attractiveness and the intention pursue. However, no significance was found.

Table 1: Perceptions of Mentors

A logistic regression analysis was conducted to predict whether the hiring of a student was based on the perceived quality of psychosocial and career mentoring function in addition to realistic job previews. No significance was found. Group differences were examined to determine if face-to-face interactions impact psychosocial functions, career functions, and organizational attractiveness. These results were not statistically significant. However, it was found that individuals who had face-to-face interactions rated their relationships with their mentors higher in career functions (t = -2.73, p <.01) and psychosocial functions (t = -2.43, p < .05). Individuals with face-to-face interactions rated their mentors higher in serving in career functions and psychosocial functions. Please refer to the table on the side for the means and standard deviations.

Results continued to reveal that psychosocial mentoring functions have he largest impact on organizational attractiveness and the intent to pursue employment. It is believed that high quality psychosocial mentoring functions establish positive attitudes towards the mentor's organization. However, realistic job previews were found to negatively affect one's intent to pursue employment. In the end, it was found that only 23 our of 188 students obtained an internship, research position or full time position as a result of the mentorship.

If organizations interested in persuading students to seek employment at their organization may want to focus their efforts on providing high quality psychosocial mentoring functions. Therefore, training should be provided to mentors on how to achieve this. However, organizations need to balance the realistic job previews with psychosocial support, as the job preview may discourage students from pursuing the organization as an employer.

Several limitations exist in this study. The most prominent is that it only studied interactions within Germany and therefore cannot be applied to the population. Furthermore, the study utilized cross-sectional survey data which resulted in low reliability measures on realistic job previews.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS
In the war on talent, this sort of mentoring program may assist organizations in attracting talent before candidates begin their job search. However, this study shows that this sort of mentoring program produces little result in candidate placement, as only 23 students landed an opportunity as a result of the mentoring relationship. Organizations interested in participating in such program should do so due to philanthropy efforts or dedication to help students. They should not utilize such program as a method to actively recruit college talent. However, continuous participation in such programs may have a positive image on the organization as a whole and may bring in talent who commend the organization's actions.

If an organization does indeed decide to implement a student mentoring program, it should require mentors to provide some sort of face-to-face interaction with their students. This is likely to increase the student's perception of a supportive mentor. Mentors should also be trained on how to properly provide both career and psycho-social support as both as vital to a successful mentoring relationship. Organizations can assist mentors with providing career support by providing them training on basic practices within career coaching and a background in counseling practices to assist with providing students with psychosocial support.

The most captivating finding of this study is that realistic job previews discouraged students from pursuing opportunities at a mentors organization. I believe this is because students do not have an understanding of the real world and what it is like to hold a full-time job. This supports the notion that colleges and universities need to start providing students with insight on life after college. Students often struggle upon entering their first full-time job because schools only portray the positives of the corporate world and not the realistic aspects.

Source: Spitzmueller, C., Neumann, E., Spitzmuller, M., Rubino, C., Keeton, K.E., Sutton, M.T. & Manzey, D. (2008). Assessing the influence of psychosocial and career mentoring on organizational attractiveness. International Jour of Selection & Assessment, 16(4), 403-414.

The Role of Mentor Trust and Protege Internal Locus of Control in Formal Mentoring Relationships

2011-08-22T10:12:00.000-07:00

Summary and commentary by Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

Mentoring is a relational process where an individual with a substantial amount of experience, and often higher seniority, assists in the professional development of a protege by providing psychosocial support, career-related support and role modeling. As a result of mentoring, proteges often experience positive work attitudes and an increased chance of career success. Research has shown that informal mentoring relationships have significantly better benefits than a formal mentoring program, which is likely the result of mutual identification and shared interests between the mentor and protege. Yet, corporations often implement a formal mentoring program to assist in assimilating new employees, identify potential management talent, and the development of new personnel.

Wang, Tomlinson and Noe (2010) sought out to examine mentoring relationships in more detail. One aspect they examined included trust. Trust is defined as "the extent to which a person is confident in, and willing to act on the basis of the words, actions and decisions of another," (McAllister, 1995 as cited in Wang et. al., 2010). Trust is further broken down into affect-based trust and cognition-based trust. Affect based trust refers to the connection between two individuals as a result of emotional bonds and similarities, which is often a result of social interactions. Cognition-based trust is based on one's perception of "competence, reliability and dependability" (Wang et. al., 2010), which is developed from observing one's character.

The researchers also set out to examine internal locus-of-control (LOC), or a personality trait that describes ones perceived ability to influence outcomes. Individuals with a higher LOC tend to pursue career goals with persistence and dedication, even when faced with obstacles. These individuals are more likely to seek out opportunities to help them to develop themselves. Therefore, it is assumed that these individuals are more likely to embrace their mentoring relationships and utilize them for advice and as a role model. It is this dedication that may encourage the mentor to provide his/her protege with more development opportunities.

The researchers collected data from a large utility organization with over 9,000 employees in China. The company was state-owned and controlled by a board of directors, instead of the Chinese government. Lifetime employment was not offered at this company. Participants were mentors and proteges that were participating in a two year formal mentoring program designed to assist new employees in learning the knowledge and skills needed to be successful in their career. While all new hires were required to participate in this program, mentors were volunteers with an acceptable level of technical skills (as identified in their performance evaluation). Proteges were matched to mentors based on their career goals, concerns and preferences. Each couple met at least 30 minutes each week.

Surveys were administered to both mentors and proteges via office mail. The survey taken by mentors assess the mentors affect-based trust and cognition-based trust. Proteges took a survey that assessed LOC, mentoring received and relationship information. A total of 140 mentor-protege dyads were included in the final sample.

The omnibus multivariate test for the full model was statistically significant, Wilks's ^ = .59, F(30,373) = 2.49, p < .001. Therefore, further regressional analysis were conducted. Mentors' affect-based trust was positively related to the proteges' report of career-related support (b = .34, p < .01), psychosocial support (b = .25, p < .05), and role modeling (b = .26, p < .05). Cognition-based trust was not significantly related to any mentoring behaviors. Protege LOC was positively related to their perception of extent modeling (b = .29, p < .05) and career-related support (b = .21, p < .05), but not significantly related to psychosocial support.

An interaction was present between mentors' cognition-based trust and protege internal LOC was significantly related to the proteges' perceived career-related support (b = -.29, p < .01), psychosocial support (b = -.19, p < .05) and role modeling (b = -.27, p < .01). This showed that when internal LOC was lower, mentor cognition-based trust was positively related to career-related support, psychosocial support, and role modeling. While there was no relationship when internal LOC was high.

Results showed that affect-related trust is a significant contributor to a successful mentoring relationship. This suggests that when there is an comradely relationship between a mentor and protege, the protege receives a more fulfilling mentoring experience. Results also showed that when a protege had a high level of LOC, they felt they received more support and role modeling from their mentoring. The most interesting finding is that when a protege has low LOC but the mentor is confident in the protege's ability, the mentor is more likely to provide psychosocial support in addition to career coaching and role modeling.

This study has a variety of limitations. First off, the study was conducted on a Chinese audience and therefore cannot be applicable to all cultures, specifically westernized cultures. Furthermore, the population was predominately men and therefore it is difficult to determine how gender would influence mentoring relations. Finally, the study only examined one organization and therefore only examined one organizational culture. For the findings to be applicable, the sample would need to be more diverse.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS

First off, the studies findings should be taken with a grain of salt because it can't be generalized to the population. It does, however, provide some interesting input for human resources professionals.

First and foremost, it shows that for a mentoring program to be truly successful, mentors and protege's much have a relationship based on affect-based trust. This can be difficult to achieve as it can't be forced upon individuals and many factors can influence the trust. One possible (but controversial) solution would be to allow the mentors to pick their proteges. The organization can host a networking event in which mentors and proteges interact in a casual setting. This allows them to explore each others' interests and personalities. Mentors can later choose which proteges they would like to assist. The downside to this method is that there is a good chance not all proteges will be selected by a mentor or multiple mentors may want to work with the same protege. Therefore, it would result in some mentors being forced to take on additional mentors that do not have as high of appeal to them.

Another option is to allow proteges to start their job without mentors. As they do their work, they will interact with senior employees who they enjoy working with and vice-versa. Proteges/mentors can then be surveyed a week or two later asking them to identify an individual they would like to be paired with. This will created a mentoring relationship that is based on affect-based trust because relationships have already started to form. It also puts less stress on the organization because less effort is spent on trying to match proteges with mentors.

For proteges that have demonstrate a low internal LOC (this can be observed through their behaviors), it would be helpful to place them with mentors that identify the potential with these individuals. As shown by the results, the mentors would be highly dedicated to assisting these individuals because they are confident in the proteges abilities. This can assist in raising the protege's internal LOC and assisting him/her with professional development.

While a structured mentoring program isn't bad, having too much structure in the early stages can negatively affect the relationships between the mentors and proteges. Organizations can still implement a formal program but should not force relationships upon individuals. Instead, encourage the individuals to identify their own relationships. Doing so will ensure a more successful program.

Source: Wang S., Tomlinson E.C., Noe R.A. (2010). The role of mentor trust and protégé internal locus of control in formal mentoring relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95 (2), 358-67.

A Lesson for HR from Maroon 5 & Christina Aguilera

2011-08-21T06:02:00.000-07:00

Maroon 5's third album "Hands All Over" was released in September 2010 with disappointing sales. It was one of the band's worst selling albums. Compared to their two prior albums, "Songs About Jane" and "It Won't Be Soon Before Long", "Hands All Over" was just missing their previous spark. Their debut single "Mercy" had plenty of airplay but their following singles had minimal airplay.

America did not hear anything about Maroon 5 until The Voice, a televised singing competition, premiered on TV; which featured Adam Levine as one of the judges. Levine was joined by Blake Shelton, Cee-Lo Green and Christina Aguilera, who also released a failed album earlier that year. Towards the end of the first season, Maroon 5 took to the stage to perform one of their singles,"Moves like Jagger". Audiences were surprised when Aguilera joined the band on stage to add a new twist to the song. The song was later recorded with Aguilera and released with soaring sales. The song has been one of the best selling songs on iTunes and today it continues as the #2 selling song on iTunes.

What can HR professionals learn from this story? It teaches us that while we perceive ourselves as experts, new ideas are crucial to success of an organization. If organizations (and HR departments) fail to bring in new talent, their actions become routine and innovation begins to flat-line. However, when new talent or consultants are brought into an organization, they challenge the organization's current processes with new ideas or constructive feedback. In regards to Maroon 5, adding a "voice" to their group brought variety and revived the band's popularity. Bringing new talent to an organization can produce the same effect for internal credibility and innovation.

Harming High Performers: a Social Comparison Perspective on Interpersonal Harming in Work Teams

2011-08-01T10:02:00.000-07:00

Summary and Commentary by Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

Interpersonal harming within the work environment is behavior that contradicts the interests of another person within the organization. These type of behaviors can include disturbing others while they are working, starting arguments, and gossiping about coworkers. Social comparisons (comparing one's performance to another individuals as either better or worse) may be cause of interpersonal harming. A upward comparison is when an individual views him/herself as better than others and is self-affirming. A downward comparison (viewing oneself as inferior to another) may be perceived as threatening and therefore the individual may compensate by doing emotional harm to others. When a downward comparison is negative, conducting interpersonal harm may negatively affect the target's job performance and therefore reduce any threats perceived by the harmer.

Two independent studies were conducted, one with student teams from a university and another with work teams within a corporation. Study 1 collected data from students at a university in Macau, China with a final data set of 141 students and 30 teams. Students were working in teams of three to seven to complete a group project. Data was collected at two different time periods. Time 1 occured 1.5 month after the team has been working together and Time 2 was conducted one month later.Study 2 collected data from sales associates in a state-owned telecommunications company in China. Teams consisted of four to five members. All members in the team were of the similar seniority. The final data set included 128 individuals from 31 teams.

Two items from Lockwood et. al. (2002) were used to measure interpersonal social comparisons. Respondents were also asked to compare their performance to their team members on a 9 point scale. Respondents were then asked "how likely is it that you will perform like this member?" This question was also measured on a 9 point scale. Three items from Tjosvold et. al. (2004) were used to assessed cooperative goals within the team based on a 5 point scale. Interpersonal harming was measured using peer ratings developed by Cohen-Charash & Muelle (2007), which distinguishes between six types of harmful behaviors. In study 2, supervisors were asked to evaluate each team's performance.

Researchers found a three-way interaction between social comparison, anticipated future performance, an cooperative team goals with statistical significance in Study 1 (B = .07, p<.01) and Study 2 (B = .06, p<.001). This suggests that teams with less cooperative goals and an individual exhibiting a upward comparison was positively related to the possibility harming a target when the expected future performance was considered low to the target. However, when expected future performance was high, there was no relationship to social comparison. Furthermore, when highly cooperative team goals were established, then there was no relationship with interpersonal harming and/or social comparison.

Results revealed that harmful behavior was positively correlated with upward comparison and negatively related to expected future performance. However, these results were only applicable to Study 1 and not Study 2. In both studies, it was found that interpersonal harming and cooperative team goals were negatively correlated. Results continued to show that team members were more likely to to harm others when there was an upward performance comparison accompanied with low expectations of future performance.

Results of this study suggest that establishing team goals is crucial to reduce the likelihood of toxic behaviors occurring. When goals are not established or agreed, individuals are more likely to compare themselves to others and possibly cause interpersonal harm. Therefore, to increase the chance of team success, teams should establish goals from the start and ensure that everyone agrees with them. This will reduce the possibility of team members comparing themselves to one another and instead create a sense of community, in which the perceived success of the individual depends on the success of the team.

The study has several apparent limitations. First, it was studied in China and therefore may not be applicable to all cultures. Future studies should examine multiple cultures to determine if it can be considered a variable. Second, the sample n Study 2 was only from one organization within a specific industry. This makes it difficult to generalize to the population. In future research, the researchers should be sure to include several companies of different industries to ensure it can be generalized to the public.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS
For organizations that require employees to work in teams (i.e. consulting, marketing, etc.), this study brings some valuable perspective. It suggests that by establishing cooperative team goals, it can create a positive dynamic between team members and encourage them to work as one.

Therefore, there are several things that can be done to encourage success among teams. When teams are about to start projects, the project lead should hold a "kick off session". Within this session, the lead explains the project and what the work will entail. Then the team can work together to establish goals that can be applied to the project. Most often, the project lead will establish the goals without consulting with the the team members. In this case, team members feel as if they have no voice and are more likely to create a competitive environment. When goals are established and agreed by everyone on the team, it creates a sense of unity that can be reinforced throughout the project.

How can human resources professionals encourage this practice? Its rather simple. HR professionals can hold a one hour training session for project leads on how to establish team goals and how to facilitate the brainstorming process. Project leaders should be educated on the benefits of this practice and provided tools that can help them facilitate a goal-setting session with their team. If these individuals are not provided with training, there is a greater chance that they will create the goals independently or not even bother to establish goals.

Overall, success within teams thrives on establishing the message that the teams success means success for all team members. An individual can not be successful independently unless the team succeeds as well.

Work Cited
Lam, C.K., Van der Vegt, G.S., Walter, F., and Huang, X. (2010). Harming high performers: a social comparison perspective on interpersonal harming in work teams. Journal of applied psychology, 96 (3), 588-601.

Managing the Inner Contractions of Job Descriptions: A Technique for Recruitment

2011-07-09T22:22:00.000-07:00

Summary and commentary by: Ian Mondrow, M.A. in Industrial/Organizational Psychology

A job description is a document composes of several sections, including: job title, supervisor title, job responsibilities, and qualifications for hiring. This single document is sole resource for many organizational operations such as recruitment, performance review, training/development, organizational structure, and more. However, Stybel (2010) claims that job descriptions are merely intended for audiences within the organization. However, issues occur because job descriptions are also used for external and internal job postings. Such that, job descriptions are written to be "public" friendly and do not always obtain the most accurate information needed for the internal operations.

Stybel and Peabody (2007, as cited by Stybel, 2010) introduced a new section into the job description called the "Leadership Mandate". This new section communicates how an individual advances within the company's strategic plans. They now use 2 documents when conducting a candidate search: (1) a job description for the general public to attract candidates in applying and (2) a leadership mandate which is given to final candidates. Stybel (2010) claims that creating these two documents protects the company against fraud charges.

The leadership mandate is merely another section of the job description that is limited to specific audiences. This new section defines what changes the company expects within the 90-120 days, what responsibilities are considered critical/time-sensitive, which responsibilities are to be placed on the back-burner (not address immediately) for the next 4 months, what is to be avoided at all costs in the upcoming 90-120 days.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS
This article does emphasize the importance of job descriptions for both internal and external purposes. It provides the foundation on what tasks a specific job is responsible and what is considered successful in finishing this work. Every job within an organization should have a description. Using the same job for multiple positions produces a variety of risks for a company including: employee turnover [since the job was not what they thought], adverse impact [success factors are not consistent], inadequate opportunities for growth [because there is no defined career path], and more. Therefore, this articles emphasis on the value of job descriptions is extremely beneficial.

To be blunt, this idea of creating two documents is crap. While the notion of the leadership mandate and its content are good, the fact is that the information is not static. In January, the leadership mandate could be entirely different from the leadership mandate in May. Change occurs every day in an organization and therefore, creating such a document can be time-consuming and counter productive. Finally, creating such a document does not prevent fraud as a job description should include all responsibilities expected in a position.

On the contrary, it is the responsibility of the recruiter and the hiring manager to clearly communicate this content to candidates (which is emphasized more in the article title than article text). Creating a leadership mandate would be more beneficial to remind managers of what candidates need to be informed about. A leadership mandate is more suitable as a tool to help managers and not as a formal HR document.

It is crucial to emphasize the value of communicating the leadership mandate information to all job finalists. It will give them an accurate portrayal of what to expect in the months to come. This will reduce turnover and increase job satisfaction as the hired employee(s) will not be caught off guard. As HR professionals, we strive to ensure that applicants are satisfied in their jobs. This is one way to prevent any unexpected disappointments or dissatisfaction.

REFERENCES
Stylbel, L.J. (2010). Managing the inner contradictions of job descriptions:a technique for use in recruitment. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 13, 105-110.

** I am not a lawyer or legal professional and therefore it is important to be aware of all state and Federal laws before considering implementation of any content read in this posting. I hold no liability for your actions.

The Uniqueness Effect in Selection Interviews

2011-05-09T21:13:00.000-07:00

Summary and Commentary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

It is a known factor that gender, physical appearance and race can influence an interviewers evaluation, whether intentional or unintentional. Studies have also shown that interviewers tend to prefer applicants that are similar to themselves. The contrast effects also impacts interviews where candidates are evaluated based on preceding interviews. Roulin et.al. (2011) has decided to introduce a new bias called the "uniqueness effect".

The uniqueness effect was first introduced by Sndyer and Fromkin in 1977. Roulin et. al. (2011) has taken their definition and adapted it to personnel selection. Roulin et. al. define the uniqueness effect as "the effect of an applicant's distinctive characteristics or answers on recruiter's evaluations and decisions in the selection process (p.44)."

79 participants were recruited from a swiss university. 85% of the participants were masters students and 15% were senior bachelor students. Participants were asked to read one of two types of job descriptions, a creative position (marketing) and a less creative position (accounting). Following reviewing the descriptions, participants read four transcribed answers to interview questions. The transcriptions were obtained from four mock interviews from male job seekers. Questions included:

Tell me about yourself
What is your main weakness?

Question one included responses of equal values. Three applicants gave non-unique answers to question two and one provided a unique answer. After reviewing the Q&A, participants evaluated the answers based on quality, job-related competence and the likelihood of termination for each applicant on a 6 point likert scale. Participants were also asked to select one applicant to hire.

The researchers conducted a 2 X 2 X 2 factorial plan to analyze results using a within-subjects methodology. A main effect was present for uniqueness, F(1,75) = 8.94, p < .01, in which unique applicants were rated higher than (M = 4.25) than non-unique applicants (M = 3.81). Job type (creative vs. non-creative) also produced a main effect, F(1,75) = 10.0, p = .002, which creative jobs recieving lower evaluations (M = 3.81) than non-creative jobs (M = 4.14). Results compared unique candidates to non-unique candidates are demonstrated in Figure 1. Figure 2 demonstrates the hiring choice for unique applicants in job type.

Several limitations to the study are present. More specifically, all participants were students and therefore are more likely to place more emphasis on academic background than job qualifications. Furthermore, the study is limited to the swiss culture and therefore may not be applicable to all cultures.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS

The study demonstrates that providing unique responses to an interview may increase one's attractiveness as an applicant. However, HR professionals must question if this a positive or negative. Uniqueness does ensure that the candidate is not providing a "cookie-cutter" answer but it also risk being less applicable to the job. Unique answers can be effectively evaluated by incorporating anchors into the interview. This assists managers is effectively evaluating the answers. It also ensures that unique answers are tracked and recorded for further debate. Furthermore, using anchors will reduce the likelihood of similarity effects or contrasts effects.

Quality of an answer is far more predictive of performance instead of unique answers. Therefore, the downside of unique responses is that it may not be representative of the skills needed to be successful in the job. This once again reinforces the need for anchored responses. While a unique answer may be easily recalled, using anchors ensures that responses are scored based on the required knowledge, skills and abilities.

Source: Roulin, N., Bangerter, A., Yerly, E. (2011). The uniqueness effect in selection interviewing. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 10 (1), 43-47.

Seeking Work-Life Balance: Employees' Requests, Supervisors' Responses and Organizational Barriers

2011-04-18T20:46:00.000-07:00

Summary and Commentary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

Work-life balance has become a sensitive topic for many employees. Daily needs, such as child care and elder care, require a significant amount of time and technology (such as blackberries and e-mail) have made it difficult to "leave work at work. Previous research on this topic has focused on the consequences of work-family conflict and the benefits of successfully managing the two. The balance is also important to employers as successful work-life balance is positively correlated with job satisfaction, life satisfaction, productivity, and attendance. Lauzun, Morganson, Major and Green (2010) set out to examine work-life balance in the context of company policies and organizational support.

425 supervisors [from a Fortune 500 company producing consumer goods] were asked to respond to 5 questions for each employee supervised. A total of 1,150 requests were reported. Figure 1 elaborates on the type of employees evaluated. Supervisors were ask the following questions when an employee made a request for work-life balance:

Please provide the specifics of each employee's request.
Did you accommodate the request?
If you answered YES, how did you accommodate the employee's request?
If you answered NO, why did you not accommodate the request? (Lauzun et. al., 2010)

The results were analyzed using a deductive open-coding approach and a codebook was developed to identify reoccurring trends. Two coauthors examined the data with the codebook and a high level of interrater reliability was established.

In total, 1,150 work-life requests were received from employees. 752 of these requests were accommodated and 326 provided reasons for not approving the requested. 72 responses did not include data from the supervisor or the researcher could not properly code the data. The most frequent type of request for schedule changes or time to be off-site (n = 523). There was a high demand for work schedule flexibility (n = 265). Some employees even asked for the possibility to telecommute (n = 46).

The second most common type of request focused on an employee's daily workload (n = 33). Many individuals felt that a collection of their meetings were not a valuable use of time. Previous research has found that meeting frequency is linked to daily fatigue and subjective workload (Luong & Rogelerg, 2005 as cited in Lauzun et. al., 2010). There were also requests to improve operating procedures.

The third most reoccurring requests were for resources to better assist the work-life balance (n = 230). This could include technology or additional staffing needs.

A collection of employees requested social support and emotional support that did not fit into the other themes (n = 64), such as emotional support, compensation or on-site amenities.

Figure two demonstrates the frequencies for the amount of requests and their themes.

When responding to the requests, 58% of supervisors accommodated employees that expressed interest in schedule changes (n = 523) or accommodations (n = 301). 81% of requests for work resources were also approved, with 230 requests for resources and 186 accommodations. Solutions included coaching, training, increased/reallocation of staff and additional tools/equipment. 333 requests were made to change one's daily work but only 46% (n = 146) were approved. For an overview of results, please refer to Figure 3.

When examining requests for emotional and instrumental support, 119 accommodations were made when there were only 64 requests. Several reasons were identified for this difference: (1) supervisor communicated with employees when work/life balance requests were made and (2) supervisors provided support when they were unable to satisfy requests in an instrumental matter.

Further analysis of the data revealed several barriers that overpowered a supervisors ability to grant requests. A total of 326 were identified and sorted into 6 categories: authority, seeking resolution, policy/culture, insufficient resources, job requirements, and multiple involvement. 109 requests were denied because the supervisor lacked the authority to authorize the request. It was also found that 40 requests were not approved because the appropriate staffing or funding was not available (Resources). Several requests were denied because of organizational policy or norms (n = 18) and and others were denied because the job requirements (n = 18) forbid such a requests. Supervisors were unable to approve all the requests and some needed the involvement of other parties (n = 18). Although many requests were denied, there were 91 instances where a supervisor continued to pursue the request for his/her employee. Pleasure refer to Figure 4 for a visual layout of the results.

This study produced several findings. Flexibility in work time and location seems to be the greatest in demand for work-life balance. Telecommuting can also benefit employers as it can reduce building and maintenance costs. It was also found that adjusting work responsibilities and providing additional resources could assist in work-life balance.

A variety of limitations exist in this study. First and foremost, the study was based upon self-report data and therefore the data is vulnerable to recall bias. Additionally, subordinates may be hesitant to make requests to their supervisor in fear of negative consequences. Another vital limitation is that the study focused on one organization and therefore cannot be applied to the population.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN RESOURCES
As one of the few qualitative studies to examine work-life balance, this study produces some interesting findings. However, it also suggests valuable information for human resources. One key point is that human resources professionals should empower managers to control the schedules of their employees. There should be no need for managers to obtain input from others or to seek alternative resolutions. This can discourage employees from making future requests and create anxiety as they wait to hear if their request is approved. Supervisors should have a general understanding of the needs of their departments and thus have no need to check with others. If this were my company, I would likely investigate why input is needed from others. It is possible that this manager needs assistance in managing resources.

Flex-time was identified as one of the most common requests among employees. Given today's technology and globalization, it is sometimes in a company's best interest to allow employees to telecommute. As mentioned by the researchers, it can reduce costs of upkeep and properties. It also makes it easier to find the most suitable candidates for open positions, as a company does not need to limit their search to local candidates. There are incidents when telecommuting is not possible or it does not align with the company culture. A company must weigh the benefits and draw-backs to determine if telecommuting is compatible with the organization's needs.

It is reassuring to see that managers are likely to provide emotional support when requests are not approved. However, managers should always be emotionally supportive of their team. Support fosters trust, and an employee that trusts his/her manager is more likely to be committed to the job. Managers do not need to be best friends with their employees but they should be able to talk to employees when they notice unusual behavior. For instance, after taking a call, my co-worker becomes immediately withdrawn. After noticing this, my managers takes her to the parking lot to talk. She later hands her the keys and says,"if you need to go home, I will understand". That is support and it strengthened the relationship between my coworker and my manager. Heck! It made me view my manager in a whole different light!

Source: Lauzun, H.M., Morganson, V.J., Major, D.A., & Green, A.P. (2010). Seeking work-life balance: Employees' requests, supervisors' responses, and organizational barriers. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 13 (3), 184-205.

Can personal control over the physical environment ease distractions in office workplaces?

2011-04-06T19:35:00.000-07:00

Summary and commentary by Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

Personal control is defined as the perceived control an individual has over various characteristics of his/her environment, which includes: (1) the organization of one's workspace; (2) personalizing one's workspace; (3) control over social contact; and (4) control over temperature, lighting and the work process (Lee & Brand, 2009). Distraction is the extent to which an individual feels diverted, disturbed or annoyed by an unwanted stimulus in the work environment.

Little consensus has been achieved on on control in the workplace, therefore much of the information was obtained from previous studies to create the control construct for this study. 9 items were developed to measure control using a 7-point likeart scale. Statements were collected from a previous study conducted by Weisman (1986) which measured concentration and noise level. 8 statements were extracted and utilized a 7-point likeart scale. Finally, one's judgement on his/her performance was collected based on Oldham's (1988) aspects of quality, quantity and creativity. These items were scored on a 5-point scale.

A sample population was collected utilizing three manufacturing companies based in Michigan. A total of 384 surveys were analyzed. Information about the physical aspect of each building was also collected, including, year constructed, facility size, renovation history, distribution method of HVAC systems and workspace specifications.

Demographics include the following:

62% male; 38% female
28% worked in engineering; 12.8% worked in marketing; 58% were employed in engineer/technical/ professional positions; 24% were managers; 13% were clerical/support and 4.2% considered themselves as other
74% worked in an open office with high dividers
Office type varied based on job category (i.e. clerical personnel were more likely to work in a cubicle and a professional is more likely to have an office

The analysis methodology was unclear and questionable. It is possible that I may not have a background in this methodology but there was no p-value to designate the significance of the results. However, the authors state that perceived control over the physical environment environment mediated the negative effects of distraction on one's performance. Therefore, the negative effects of distracting noise can be decreased by providing employee's control of their personal work place.

Results need to be interpreted delicately as they were collected based on self-report. Clearly self-report surveys are vulnerable to biases.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS

While the topic requires further research, it does reveal some helpful information. First and foremost, private offices are the ideal workspace for any employee, as it dramatically reduces the possibility of distractions. However, private offices for every individual employee is not always feasible and therefore, companies often resort to a public work environment.

When a public work environment is needed, employers should try to eliminate distractions as much as possible. One popular method is to use cubicle walls to provide employees with privacy. Some companies choose to avoid cubicles due to the stigma it can create. Even with cubicles, distractions, such as noise, are impossible to avoid. This article suggest increasing an employee's sense of personal control can assist them in blocking external distractions. Simple yet effective methods can be used, such as:

Believe it or not, it is possible to get cubicles with doors

Instead of using overhead fluorescent lights, give employees lamps with a dimming feature
Allow employees to layout furniture
Encourage employee's to decorate their desk with pictures of their liking
Allow employees to which desk they want to sit at (if possible)
Enclose a cubicle and give employees the right to have a door

Source: Lee, S.Y., & Brand, J.L. (2010). Can personal control over the physical environment ease distractions in office workplaces? Ergonomics, 53 (3), 324-335.

Resume or curriculum vitae?

2011-03-21T17:52:00.000-07:00

Summary and commentary by Ian Mondrow

Throughout my career, I have met people of different backgrounds. Some people have doctorates, others have been working for fifth-teen years and some people are just entering the job market. It was not until I applied for my friend's former position, that I realized some people use a curriculum vitae (CV) instead of a resume. I decided to investigate this methodology further by asking my HR and recruiter friends.

A survey was developed using Google docs and participants were obtained via LinkedIn and LinkedIn. In total, 12 participants completed the survey. Of these participants, 4 of them were human resources professionals, 4 worked in the recruitment industry, 3 were company owners and 1 person identified themselves as other. All participants were asked to rank a collection of statements based on a 5-point likert scale of agreement (1 = disagree and 5 = agree). Below are the following statements that were assessed:

A resume should only be one page.
A curriculum vitae works just as well as a resume.
A curriculum vitae is best suitable for a PhD or PhD ABD.
An individual with a graduate degree can have a resume that is more than one page.
A resume can be more than one page if a candidate has enough job experience.
A curriculum vitae is only applicable for jobs in academics.
A curriculum vitae is only applicable for jobs in research.
Bachelor graduates should not use a curriculum vitae.
A resume is far more effective than a curriculum vitae.
Recent graduates should apply for jobs with a curriculum vitae.

RESULTS

Figure 1: A resume should only be one page

Questions 1, 4, and 5 questioned respondents on the lengths of resumes and their preferences. Contrary to the teachings of many career centers, 10 out of 12 respondents disagreed that resumes should only be one page. Furthermore, no respondents agreed with that statement. Figure one demonstrates these results in a bar graph. Questions 4 and 5 continue by asking if there are exceptions to the 1 page standard. 9 out of 12 respondents agreed that it is more acceptable for individuals with advanced degrees (i.e. Masters, PhD, etc.). Moreover, all participants agreed that it is acceptable to have more than one page if an individual has enough job experience. Figure 2 demonstrates their agreement in a bar graph.

Items 2,3 and 6-10 focused on the usage of a CV instead of a resume. As expected, most participants agreed that a CV is best for candidates with a PhD, at least according to 10 participants. It was expected that CVs would be preferred for academic or research jobs but there was no consistent pattern between participants. Please refer to figure 2 and 3 for a representation of these results. Surprisingly, no one completely agreed with statements 6 and 7. The usage of the word "only" in these statements may have impacted the results.

Figure 2: A CV is only applicable for jobs in academics

Figure 3: A CV is only applicable for jobs in research

Results continued to shock as no participants showed any agreement to item 10, which states that graduates should use a CV. In general, there was no preference between a CV or a resume.

CONCLUSIONS

In general, one's job experience seems to be the determining factor of resume length. If an individual has enough experience to fill more than one page, it is more acceptable to include 2 pages if the content consumes at least half of the second page. One respondent mentioned that recruiters won't read 2 pages but all participants agreed that having a 2 page resume can be beneficial if it contains significant accomplishments and relevant information.

The only exception to that rule is if an individual utilizes a CV. CVs are generally longer in length. Using a CV instead of a resume appears to be personal preference and hiring managers have their preference as well. When participants were asked if they prefer a CV or a resume, most of them responded that it varied on the market and the job. Therefore, job applicants should conduct research to determine if a resume or CV would be more suitable.

Figure 4: A CV is only applicable for jobs in academics

There are several limitations to this study. First and foremost, the participants are not a true representation of the population. This representation is difficult to achieve with only 12 people. Second, the size of the participant pool can drastically alter the results of a study. The fewer participants that participate, the more weight their market has.

Thank you for all those who have participated!

Can Counterproductive Work Behaviors Be Productive?

2011-03-14T05:24:00.000-07:00

Summary and Commentary by: Ian B. Mondrow , M.A.

Counterproductive work behaviors (CWB) are acts consciously conducted by employees that have the ability to negatively impact an organization and/or its members. Spector et al. (2006) has suggested that there are five categories of CWBs including: abuse towards others, sabotage, theft, production deviance (i.e. working slowly), and withdrawal (i.e. taking longer breaks). CWBs may be a result of emotional exhaustion, or the feeling of being worn down as a result; often the result of burnout. Emotional exhaustion has been found to be related with turnover, cardiovascular and sleep problems, decreased motivation, decreased task performance, and citizenship behaviors.

It has been suggested that CWBs are a coping mechanism to reduce stress from a negative situation. Coping is a cognitive or behavior action that one takes in response to stress. CWBs provide individuals with a sense of control over stressful situations. This article focuses on withdrawal and production deviance. Withdrawal and production deviance reduce employee exhaustion by giving individuals the opportunity to return to their normal emotional state. Withdrawal behaviors include actions such as taking longer breaks or leaving early for the day. While outside of the work environment, an employee's frustration decreases and allows an him/her to return to a calm state of mind. Production deviance is when an individual intentionally works slowly, does work incorrectly [intentionally], or ignores procedures. These actions allow the individuals to "even the score" when confronted with injustice and may reduce emotional exhaustion.

Organizational justice is the how an individual perceives the fairness between individuals and the organization. It is composed of distributive justice and procedural justice. Distributive justice is the perceived fairness of reward and recognition, while procedural justice refers to the fairness of the process by which decisions are made. Organizational justice may have the ability to influence the occurrence of CWBs within an organization.

Krischer, Penney and Hunter (2010) utilized StudyResponse Project to recruit 522 participants; of which, 295 were examined. Although it was requested that participants be employed full-time, 20.8% of the respondents were employed part-time. After careful analysis, it was determined the two groups were not significantly different. Participants completed a self-evaluation of the following:

Price & Mueller's (1986) six-item scale to measure distributive justice (1 = very unfairly; 5 = very fairly)
Moorman's 12-item scale to measure procedural justice (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree)
3 items from the Counterproductive Work Behavior Checklist (Spector et. al, 2006) to measure production deviance (1 = never; 5 = everyday)
4 items from the Counterproductive Work Behavior Checklist to measure withdrawal (1 = never; 5 = everyday)
6 items from the Job-Related Affective Well-Being (JAWS) Scale to measure emotional exhaustion (1 = never; 5 = always)

JAWS is not typically used to measure emotional exhaustion but 2 subject-matter experts identified items that closely relate to the definition of emotional exhaustion.

Results were collected by conducting intercorrelations and descriptive statistics. It was found that both distributive justice (rs = -.38, p < .01) and procedural justice (rs = -.41, p < .01) had a moderately negative correlation with emotional exhaustion. This suggests that if an individual perceives an organization to have low distributive justice or low procedural justice, he/she is more likely to be emotionally exhausted.

A hierarchical linear regression was also utilized to analyze the two types of justice, withdrawal, and production deviance. A strong interaction was found between distributive justice and withdrawal behaviors, R2 = .60, p < .01. It may be assumed that if an individual feels rewards are not fairly distributed, then he/she is more likely to withdraw. Distributive justice and production deviance also produced moderately significant results,R2 = .50, p<.05, suggesting that if distributive justice is perceived as high, one is less likely to conduct production deviance acts. Finally, procedural justice also had a moderate relationship with withdrawal, R2 = .42, p < .05, suggesting that withdrawal is less likely to occur when an individual feel procedural justice is served. No interaction was present between procedural justice and production deviance.

No significant findings were present when an individual admitted to high levels of production deviance. However, those who had low levels of production deviance had a negative relationship with between distributive justice and emotional exhaustion, r = -1.17, p < .01. Results continued to show that Individuals with low levels of withdrawal were more likely to be emotionally exhausted when they perceived procedural justice as low, r = -1.37 & -1.06, p <.01).

SUMMARY WITHOUT ALL THE STATS

Results show that if employee perceive their workplace to have higher levels of justice, it will increase their well-being and reduce the need for coping behaviors. However, when justice is seen as low, employees are more likely to exhibit CWBs as a coping mechanism . The researchers suggest that CWBs may be used to shape an employees emotional experiences at work, rather than a reaction to experiences.

Contrary to the researchers' hypothesis, the results showed that production deviance is not a coping mechanism for perceived procedural justice. Instead, it may be suggested that production deviance requires active engagement and therefore requires low levels of withdrawal to uphold, whereas withdrawal behaviors are far more passive.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS

The following study demonstrates the importance of organizational justice. Employees that perceive unfair organizational justice are more likely to withdrawal and be less interested or committed to their work. HR professionals can use their symptoms to their advantage. If employees are observed exhibiting withdrawal behaviors (i.e. leaving early regularly, taking longer breaks, taking extra breaks, etc.), HR can begin to question both procedural and distributive justice within the organization. If this is an area of concern, surveys can be used to effectively measure personnel's perception of organizational justice. It is suggested to utilize a consultant with a background in industrial/organizational psychology or psychometrics to ensure that the survey is accurately measuring perceptions.

HR can also use these findings to their advantage. CWBs can be prevented by ensuring employees are empowered. This can be succeeded through a fair grievance system or implementing a skip-level reporting system. Furthermore, emotional exhaustion can be prevented by providing employees with outlets for their stressors such as exercise programs or facilities. Organizations should also encourage employees to take break to ensure they can take time to restore their energy.

The study also reveals scary findings. Employees that are likely to conduct production deviance are less likely to appear emotionally exhausted or withdrawn. This makes it far more difficult to identify employees that may be conducting counterproductive behaviors. In reality, it means that an engaged and supportive group of employees could contain an individual that exhibits negative behaviors. It is up to management to properly observe their employees and to measure performance on a regular basis. It is best to be proactive than reactive. Therefore, encourage employees to speak up when they observe deviant behaviors.

Source: Krischer, M.M., Penney, L.M., & Hunt, E.M. (2010). Can counterproductive workbehaviors be productive? CWB as emotion-focused coping. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15(2), 154-166.

Can heterosexism harm organizations? Predicting the perceived organizational citizenship behaviors of gay and lesbian employees

2011-02-21T17:36:00.000-08:00

Summary and commentary by: Ian Mondrow

Employees who are open about their sexual identity have an increased chance of confronting workplace discrimination. Some instances can include: glass ceiling effect, loss of credibility and less positive regard from their peers. An organizational culture with a strong emphasis on heterosexism (the lack of concern for members of the GLBT community) has previously been found to predict the self-disclosure of sexual minority employees. Previous research has found that the stereotype of being gay instills a higher sense of self-focus, or monitoring one's actions. Stigmatization salience is defined as an individual's self-focus to the membership of a culturally stigmatized group (such as sexual orientation).

OCBs are positive work behaviors that increase the performance of an organization. Helping behaviors and organizational compliance are two OCBs that will be utilized in this study. Help behavior is the voluntary effort to help others. Organizational compliance is the following of organization policy.

Data was collected from an online national study of gay and lesbian individuals. Individuals that identified themselves as bisexual were excluded from the sample as their experiences may differ from gays and lesbians. A total of 606 employed individuals were included in the sample. The sample was split into two groups: 311 participants were in the testing group and 295 participants were placed in the validation sample. Four vignettes from the Organizational Tolerance for Heterosexism (Waldo, 1999) was used to assess organizational climate for each participant. Workplace outness was measured using three items from Mohr and Fassinger's (2000) outness indicator. Stigmatization silence was measured by six items created by the authors of this article. Finally, seven items were utilized from the sub-scales of Smith et al. (1983).

A goodness of fit model (correlation) was utilized for the analysis. It was found that heterosexism within an organization's climate did impact one's ability to be out. Stigmatization salience was negatively related to both organizational climate and outness. Finally, workplace behaviors were positively predicted of being out. Findings were verified with similar results from the validation sample.

**Correlation statistics to be posted later today**

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS
To put it shortly, the ability to be out and open has a positive impact on performance. A workplace culture that heterosexist focused is more likely to increase stigmatization salience and hinder one's ability to be out.

The study clearly demonstrates the toxicity of a heterosexist environment. Gay and lesbian individuals are continually monitoring their behavior and weary of any indicators that they may demonstrate. The truth is that organizations should embrace the differences between every individual. Since diversity increases innovation, what benefit does a heterosexist culture provide? Basically it is merely encouraging gender norms for both men and women, regardless of one's sexuality. Therefore, one could be heterosexual but still be cautious of their behaviors as they do not want their coworkers to think they are gay. Therefore, a heterosexist environment is not only harmful to gay and lesbian employees but any individual that is a member of the organization.

Source: Brenner, B.R., Lyons, H.Z. Fassinger, R.E. (2010). Can heterosexism harm organizations? Predicting the perceived organizational citizenship behaviors of gay and lesbian employees. The Career Development Quarterly. 58, 321 - 335.

Making Transfer Climate Visible: Utilizing Social Network Analysis to Facilitate the Transfer of Training

2011-02-06T16:49:00.000-08:00

Summary & Commentary by Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

The transfer of training is when current knowledge, skills and abilities have an impact on the learning of new skills or knowledge. There are three main players involved the in the transfer process, including: the learner, the manager and the trainer. The climate of transfer is influenced by the perceived support of managers/peers, the ability to utilize the new knowledge learned, and the perceived outcomes of applying the new training content. Climate plays a key role in whether or not the transfer of training is successful, and the communication network determines the climate.

The social network theory is the study of how interpersonal relationships within a department or whole organization affect the beliefs and opinions of other individuals. Wasserman and Faust (1994) concluded several assumptions in regards to social networks: (1) actors and their actions within networks are influenced by the actions of others; (2) connections between individuals is can be a formal or informal route for information sharing; (3) network models can identify any barriers in the successful transmission of information. Social networks can be utilized to identify key contributors with an extensive outreach who may have drastic impact on a training transfer's success.

Social networks can be analyzed with either the ego network analysis or complete network analysis. An ego network analysis examines the communications exhibited by one individual. This type of analysis is useful in examining individuals participating in a training in isolation from the rest of the organization. The complete network analysis examines a group of individuals (whether is a team, department or entire organization) and the communication streams within the group. Collecting information for either analysis can be achieved through observations, interviews, surveys or archival documents. Data can be measured in two ways: (1) Using the numbers 0 and 1 to show the existence of a relationship and (2) using a likert scale to show the degree in which two individuals interact with one another. Once this data is collected, data can be analyzed using UCINET 6 and the network maps can be developed using NetDraw. An example of a social network map is shown below.

The social network data can be extremely useful in the implementation of training. Key actors in the networks can be used to determine what/why training is needed, obtain feedback on training content, determine the best methodology to deliver training, how to increase the transfer of training and encouraging others to use the information learned in training. Additionally, the network results can be used to determine what groups are for or against the new training. Once identified, researchers can examine these groups to determine why the outliers are not supportive.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS

Social Network Analysis is a new statistical analysis that has recently been introduced into the business sector. Therefore, its credibility may be questionable to high level executives, especially if only data is presented. Utilizing the visualization of the maps assists in overcoming resistance as it shows all connections and the magnitudes of each individual within a network. Explaining the network is only half the battle. One must be able to explain how these results will be used within the organization.

The results can prove to be especially useful in large organizational changes. The network can identify key individuals that communicate across the organization and have high credibility. Much like a change agent network, these individuals can be used to ensure that the correct messages are being communicated throughout the organization (i.e. killing inaccurate rumors before they begin). The support of these individuals can also assist in proving the value of the change to the rest of the organization. As mentioned earlier, these individuals are also valuable in providing feedback about training and how to improve the facilitation methods.

This method can be costly and time lengthy therefore it would not be effective for small initiatives but rather large scale changes. In addition, HR professionals should not attempt to conduct the analysis themselves. Instead, it is suggested they hire someone with a background in industrial/organizational psychology or psychometrics. Although costly, the benefits of this analysis can be extremely beneficial in large scale changes.

Source: Hatala, J.P. & Fleming, P.R. (2007). Making transfer climate visible: utilizing social network analysis to facilitate the transfer of training. Human Resource Development Review, 6 (1), 1-31.

How to (and how not to) assess the integrity of leaders

2011-01-31T03:40:00.000-08:00

Summary & Commentary by Ian Mondrow, M.A. in Industrial / Organizational Psychology

Ethics and integrity are often used interchangeably but they are clearly differentiated. Ethics are the desirable behaviors established by society that establish “right” and “wrong” for its members (Pojman, 1995 as cited in Kaiser & Hogan, 2010). In contrast, integrity is the moral attribution we apply to one’s observed behavior (Kaiser & Hogan, 2010). Current assessments are unable to measure integrity directly and therefore it is indirectly measured through other constructs, such as the Five-Factor Model of personality. Unfortunately, Personality does not predict future behaviors. It is suggested that measuring one’s personality results in skewed results and managers tend to be rated higher than they actually are. One’s previous experiences and reputation provide a more reliable source for measuring one’s integrity.

Kaiser & Hogan (2010) decide to research the use of integrity testing in more detail. Data was collected from 672 directors and vice-presidents from Fortune 500 companies and included ratings from approximately 5 subordinates for each individual. Using a 23 item questionnaire with a 5 point likert scale (0 = ineffective and 4 = extremely effective), leaders were assessed on 5 competencies: vision, execution, managerial courage, building talent and integrity. A t-test demonstrated that integrity scores were generally higher than any other construct. The smallest difference (which was statistically significant) occurred between integrity (M = 2.68, SD =.40) and execution ( M = 2.31, SD = .42) with a difference of .92 in standard deviation, t(671) = 22.88, p < .001. Not one leader received a score of 1, which is considered minimally acceptable. A tukey’s post examination revealed no statistical significance for integrity. This demonstrates that this method does not effectively differentiate those with low integrity from those with high integrity. It continues to reveal that managers are always provided favorable scores when being assessed on integrity.

Following the initial study, Kaiser & Hogan decided to try a new approach of assessing integrity. The approach does not ask evaluators to refer to observed behavior but asks the likelihood that a manager will engage in questionable behavior. 80 students from a southeastern university were recruited to participate in the following study. Participants were asked to rate their current managers using the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBD) – Form XII (Stogdill, 1963) and the shortened version of the Perceived Leader Integrity Scale (PLIS) [focusing on perceived integrity]. Unlike the LBD, higher scores on the PLIS are less desirable as a higher score demonstrates a greater probability of unethical behavior. Additional items were used to measure the perceived effectiveness of a supervisor and job satisfaction. The smallest difference occurred between initiating structure (M = 2.37, SD = .83) and perceived integrity (M = 2.66, SD = .97), t(79) = 3.48, p < .001. Participants were more comfortable rating managers below the median (2), which did not even occur in the previous method, Therefore, the PLIS is three times less elevated than the previous methodology, which had a standard deviation of .90. The analysis also exposed that the PLIS correlated with job satisfaction and perceived effectiveness of a manager. It can be assumed that if managers are perceived as ethical, employees will generally have higher levels of job satisfaction.

There are several limitations to consider in this study. First off, the samples in both studies are entirely different. Students may rate managers differently as there is less of a chance that they work full-time. They may have also worked for different companies and therefore was a variance in organizational culture.

IMPLICATONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS

It is important to mention that if ethical testing is used in any selection process, it must demonstrate validity. Therefore, a company must be able to demonstrate that the test predicts successful performance in case the test experiences adverse impact.

Organizations can now more effectively measure the integrity of their employees by utilizing a system similar to the PLIS. Instead of measuring personality, the assessment can focus on the likelihood that one will perform unethical behavior. There is no need to argue why as the study above provides statistical proof. To increase its creditability, upcoming studies should look at a variety of samples to ensure it is applicable to the real world.

The study does provide significant findings that are applicable to performance appraisals. Since the perceived integrity is found to increase job satisfaction, which can reduce turnover and increase performance. It is better to be proactive than reactive when battling integrity. By instilling a culture that values ethical behavior, managers are less likely to participate in questionable behavior. Encouraging executives to communicate and model the ethical behaviors can reinforce the culture. Supervisors that are already demonstrating unethical behavior or low levels of integrity can be difficult to develop, especially since their creditability may already be shot.

Source: Kaiser, R.B., Hogan, R. (2010). How to (and how not to) assess the integrity of managers. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 62(4), Dec 2010, 216-234.

The Relationship between Pay and Job Satisfaction: A Meta-Analysis of the Literature

2011-01-23T19:08:00.000-08:00

Summary & Commentary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

The common phrase "money can't buy you happiness" has been proven to be valid. However, does one's pay influence his/her perception of work? Judge, Piccolo, Podsakoff, Shaw and Rich (2010) set out on a mission to determine if salary has an impact on one's job satisfaction.

The researchers used a series of terms on the PsycINFO database to collect 1156 abstracts. Out of this collection of abstracts, it was determined that 86 studies were to be utilized in the analysis. A meta-analysis was conducted to provide estimated correlations between satisfaction and pay level.

Results revealed that pay-level was positively correlated with both job satisfaction ( r = .15, p < .05) and pay satisfaction (r = .24, p < .05). Since zero was not included in the confidence intervals, it can be assumed the mean correlations of job satisfaction and pay satisfaction were not zero. A population correlation showed a stronger relationship between pay level and satisfaction than the correlations with pay level and job satisfaction (Z = -4.01, p < .05). This suggests that pay level has a stronger relationship pay-satisfaction than job-satisfaction. Therefore, it is possible for an individual to be satisfied with his/her pay but not satisfied with his her job.

When analyzing moderators, the country being examined had no effect. The United States showed no difference in pay level and job satisfaction than Great Britain, India Australia and Thailand. In addition, Pay satisfaction did not differ based on the country.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS
While pay may help to determine if an applicant accepts a job offer, salary has little effect on one's job satisfaction. An individual can be satisfied with the amount of pay he/she is receiving but intrinsic rewards and culture-fit have been found to be better predictors of job satisfaction. Pay will not motivate employees and HR Managers need to ensure that managers comprehend this.

When considering job satisfaction, focus on the company culture and reward system. Take Google as an example. Previously, Google has offered employees lower wages but provided a vast amount of benefits. In addition, the culture within google was positively perceived and therefore individuals were more likely to accept the pay cut due to their high levels of job satisfaction (fostered by the culture). Employees should feel as though they are making an impact and their work is appreciated. An intrinsic reward provides one with greater satisfaction because it instills a sense of pride. An extrinsic rewards can be meaningless because it quickly loses its value once the novelty has wore off.

This does not mean that an organization can offer lower wages compared to their competitors. Wages have an impact on the war for talent and therefore, to be competitive, an organization must be able to match wages. It does ensure that an organization does not have to be a pay leader in order for their employees to be happy.

source: Judge, T.A., Piccolo, R.F., Podsakoff, J.C., Rich, B.L. (2010). The relationship between pay satisfaction and job satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77, 157-167.

Organizational Predictors of Women on Corporate Boards

2011-01-18T16:57:00.001-08:00

Summary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

Diversity is crucial for organizational survival. Previous research has demonstrated that diverse teams often generate more alternative solutions to problems as a result of their increased information search and different perspectives. More specifically, gender diversity has been found to increase creativity within the groups. While the positives outweigh the negatives, diversity does have its downfalls. There is the risk of decreased communication, slow decision making, high levels of conflict and narrow-mindedness. Diversity's success thrives on the leaders of the organization and their ability to demonstrate an open mind.

Men have always have an advantage in the business sector and it is easier for men to grow to executive positions. It is not uncommon for men to ride the glass escalator while women encounter the glass ceiling, or the inability to grow past a certain position. In 2005, 37% of the managerial workforce was composed of women but only 14.7% held board seats in Fortune 500 companies (Catalyst, 2005 as cited by Hillman & Cannella, 2007). Due to this small distribution, Hillman & Cannella (2007) decide to examine the effects of having a female presence on corporate boards.

The researchers utilized public filings from 950 firms and 9,722 firm-wide observations from 1990 to 2003. The dependent variable for the study was the presense of women on a firm's board. If one or more women were on a company's board of directors, then it was coded as "1". Otherwise it was coded as "0".

Odds ratios were used to test a series of hypothesizes. This represents the degree of change that the likelihood of the dependent variable as a result of a one-unit change in the independent variable. Odds ratios greater than 1.00 indicate a positive correlation between the variables. Anything below a 1.00 signifies there is no relationship.

44.21% of the firms did not have female representation on their board. In additional, the odds ratio analysis revealed significant results. An increase in annual sales is found to increase the likelihood of female representation on a directors board by 19.2%, odds ratio = 1.19, p < .001 (Hillman et. al., 2007). Industries with higher amounts of female employees had a relationship with the presence on boards as well, odds ratio = 1.01, p < .05. Diversity within an organization was found to not have an impact on female representation. Organizations that have females on their board of directors were likely to encourage related companies to include women on their boards as well, odds ratio = 1.09, p < .001. Organization age and number of directors were also found to be successful predictors but were not as statistically significant.

While the study findings are not 100% proven, it does demonstrate the presence of relationships between female representation on the board of directors and other factors. Annual sales, "woman-friendly" industries, and competing organizations with female directors may influence the gender composure of an organization's board of directors.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS
Times are changing and diversity is crucial for an organization's growth and competitive nature. This study shows that organizations are more likely to have a diversified board of directors based on their employee demographics. In addition, if their competition has female representation on their board, they are more likely to encourage the participation of women. I personally believe that an organization should strive to create a diverse board of directors so that a variety of demographics are represented. This gives each group of people representation and increases the likelihood that voices are heard.

Diversity on the board of directors is also crucial for talent management. People are more likely to join organizations where they share similarities with others. Board of directors are often advertised on company websites and therefore, it is easy for candidates to see what demographics are present. For instance, a woman may be discouraged to apply for a position at an organization if she notices there are no female officers. She may fear sexual harassment, lacking a voice or the chance that she may be discriminated. This is not true for every individual but cases of this exist. Encouraging diversity within a board of directors can reduce the likelihood that this would occur.

It is best stated in one sentence: Diversity = Innovation = Success

Source: Hillman, A.J. & Cannella, A.A. (2007). Organizational predictors of women on corporate boards. Academy of Management Journal, 50 (4), 941-952.

The Influence of a Manager's Own Performance Appraisal on the Evaluation of Others

2011-01-12T19:30:00.000-08:00

Summary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

Latham, Budworth, Yanar and Whyte (2008) take a unique approach in conducting research. Instead of just conducting an experiment, the authors review a case study, laboratory simulation and two (2) field studies. The article was set out to determine if a manager's past performance evaluation has any influence of the evaluations of his/her team members. Feedback from performance reviews may also affect mood, which could influence the ratings managers provide their team. Dissatisfaction on the job commonly occurs when an appraisal does not provide an accurate reflection of a person's behavior. Therefore, one must consider factors that may cause a bias on performance appraisals.

CASE STUDY
The case study did not contribute to the study as the findings were not significant. In short, it did not support the hypothesis.

LABORATORY SIMULATION
30 managers from the private sector were invited to participate in a study. They were randomly assigned to two groups. Both groups were provided hypothetical feedback concerning their performance from the previous year; the feedback differed as one was negative and the other was positive. Please refer to Appendix 1 to view the feedback distributed. After reading the feedback, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) mood assessment scale was administered to each participant. This assessment evaluates mood based on a participants agreement/disagreement with 10 positive terms and 10 negative terms (all terms were emotions). Participants were then provided with a description of the job they will be assessing and watched a videotape demonstrating an employees behavior.

A main effect was present for affectivity based on one's membership in the positive or negative feedback group, F = 18.63, p<.001. Managers who received negative feedback (M = 30.92, SD = 6.65) had higher amounts of negativity (according to PANAS) than managers who were part of the positive feedback condition (M = 15.77, SD = 8.44). Managers who received positive feedback (M = 40.14, SD = 6.98) had a higher level of positivity than managers in the negative feedback condition (M = 23.47, SD = 6.65). When comparing the assessment scores to the performance appraisal completed by participants, no effect was present. Therefore, this study demonstrates that mood does not affect one's ability to evaluate another's performance.

FIELD STUDY 1
27 participants from a manufacturing company were recruited to participate in the field study. All participants had been at the company for at least five (5) years and were familar with the performance appraisal process. Researchers collected the performance appraisals of these participants and a year later, collected the participant's evaluations for their employee (a total of 74). A Spearman Correlation revealed a level of .25, with a significance of p<.05. This study supports the findings in the laboratory study.

FIELD STUDY 2
39 managers and 227 manager subordinate dyads in Istanbul, Turkey participated in the study. The HR manager had provided the performance appraisals to the researchers. The performance appraisal of a manager successfully correlated with their evaluation of their subordinate, r = .57, p<.01.

CONCLUSIONS
While the case study does not support the initial hypothesis of the researchers, the field studies and laboratory study have demonstrated that a manager's previous performance does indeed influence how they rate their subordinates. It is possible that a manager's performance appraisal sets their standards of performance and managers may have the expectations that their subordinates cannot outperform them. Although its a cynical notion, the stats of the study could support that this bias exist.

However, take this study with a grain of salt. The publication provides limited statistical information and provides no tables to expand on their findings. There is a possibility that the researchers are only presenting the information they would like to show.

HR IMPLICATIONS
If this research is true, what can HR professionals do to prevent this bias from occurring? I have 3 recommendations:

Training -- Inform managers that this bias does exist. Managers who are aware of this bias may be more cautious in their ratings. Some may argue that training managers on biases only causes an individual to label their behaviors instead of improving it. I have a belief that it can do no harm and therefore conducting training would not be counterproductive.
Provide In-Depth Tools -- Put detail into your organization's performance appraisal. Define each attribute that is being assessed. Then anchor the rating scale to create consistency among evaluators. Once these tools are developed, provide workshops for managers that allow them to test the system and create interrater reliability.
Examine - Quickly review a managers' rating for their team. Examine the managers score from the previous year to determine if they used their previous scores to set the bar. This is not an ideal method for a large organization with large teams and many managers.

Further research is required on this topic and one should not assume that the results are trustworthy.

APPENDIX 1

Negative Feedback
"Your boss is disappointed with your progress and needs to see signiﬁcant improvement in your performance in the near future. There is widespread agreement that you have poor management skills. Moreover, your interpersonal skills are lacking. Your peers ﬁnd your abilities to be mediocre at best. They complain that they are constantly ‘cleaning up your mess'. our subordinates do not respect you and ﬁnd it difﬁcult to take your direction seriously. They always double check your instructions with your boss. In summary, you need to improve signiﬁcantly in order to ensure a future with the company. Your overall rating is 1 on a seven-point scale."

Positive Feedback

"You have exceeded your boss’s expectations and everyone is extremely pleased with your progress. You have outstanding management skills that are only surpassed by your interpersonal skills. Your peers ﬁnd your performance to be highly effective. They look to you for direction, and they respect your opinion greatly. Your subordinates think of you as a mentor, and look to you for direction on matters beyond the scope of your portfolio. In summary, you are performing well above average. You have a strong and secure future with the company. Your overall rating is 7 on a seven-point scale."

Source: Latham, G.P., Budworth, M.H., Yanar, B., Whyte, G. (2008). The influence of a manager's own performance appraisal on the evaluation of others. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 16 (3), 220-228.

Survey Results: Resume Objectives

2011-01-02T19:07:00.000-08:00

Summary and Analysis by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

An online survey was conducted examining the importance of resume objectives. Participants were gathered using LinkedIn and Twitter. Overall, there was a total of Twenty-two (22) participants. Fourteen (14) participants held a recruiter position (7 internally and 7 externally). Five (5) HR employees and three (3) hiring managers were also included. Seventeen (17) of the participants had more than 5 years of experience. Unfortunately, job-seekers were not permitted to complete the survey as their answers could have altered the results and provided inaccurate information. Please see the appendix for the frequencies of each question (Fair warning: Blogger is not chart friendly and therefore formatting maybe off in the appendix).

Participants were asked the following questions:
(Quantitative - Participants rated the questions on a scale from 1-5)
What role do you play in your organization?
How many years of experience do you have in this position?
Objective statements on resumes are redundant.
Objectives help me understand the goals of a job candidate.
Most recruiters do not understand the value of an objective statement.
Most of the candidates that I select will have an objective statement in their resume.
I rarely take the time to consider an applicant's objective on their resume.
Objective statements are just advice that college career centers give students.
Every resume should have an objective statement.
I will not look at a resume if there is no objective.
I quickly skim objectives as I scan resumes.
There are other options that candidates can use instead of objectives that are far more appealing.

(Qualitative Questions)
What do you want to hear from job applicants in a an objective?
What is the most memorable objective that you have read?
Do you feel objectives are beneficial on resumes? Why or why not?

RESULTS

Seventeen (17) out of Twenty-two (22) participants agreed that resumes do not require objective statements.
Twenty participants (20) continued to show that excluding an objective will not negatively affect an applicant in the process.
Nineteen (19) participants agreed in some sense that there are no alternatives to a resume objective statement.
A resume objective is not viewed as redundant according to eighteen (18) respondents.

When asked what respondents look for in objective statements, most responses centered around what an applicant can bring to the organization and/or the position. Several respondents stated that there is no need that to state that one is looking for a job because that is already obvious. Instead, they are looking for a culture match and characteristics that may be beneficial to the job.

When asked about the most memorable objective statement they have seen, most respondents provided no answer. One participant mentioned that one applicant had done their research on the organization and focused their objective statement on the information he/she have found. When asked what recruiters want in an objective statement, almost all respondents mentioned that they want specified information about their company and the position. Some respondents mentioned that a summary is more useful than an objective statement.

DISCUSSION
The results of this survey reveal helpful advice for jobseekers. First and foremost, an objective on a resume is not required, especially if the objective is vague. Recruiters will often look at objectives but it is not their main focus on a resume. Job applicants should focus their attention on a summary section as the information it is helpful to recruiters.

An objective can be an easy method for applicants to show their value to the potential employer. This can be achieved by researching the company to provide information on how you, as a potential employee, could contribute to the organization. This is the perfect opportunity for candidates to carefully review the job description and determine the employers needs. Think of the objective as a short cover letter with 1-2 sentences and embrace your strengths as they relate to the company and the job.

Thank you for everyone who participated in the survey. Please watch my Twitter account to participate in the next occupational survey.

APPENDIX

Objective statements on resumes are redundant.

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Valid

Disagree

1

4.5

4.5

4.5

Somewhat disagree

2

9.1

9.1

13.6

Neither agree or disagree

1

4.5

4.5

18.2

Somewhat agree

5

22.7

22.7

40.9

Agree

13

59.1

59.1

100.0

Total

22

100.0

100.0

Objectives help me understand the goals of a job candidate.

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Valid

Disagree

8

36.4

36.4

36.4

Somewhat disagree

4

18.2

18.2

54.5

Somewhat agree

7

31.8

31.8

86.4

Agree

3

13.6

13.6

100.0

Total

22

100.0

100.0

Most recruiters do not understand the value of an objective statement.

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Valid

Disagree

4

18.2

18.2

18.2

Somewhat disagree

4

18.2

18.2

36.4

Neither agree or disagree

7

31.8

31.8

68.2

Somewhat agree

2

9.1

9.1

77.3

Agree

5

22.7

22.7

100.0

Total

22

100.0

100.0

Most of the candidates that I select will have an objective statement in their resume.

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Valid

Disagree

7

31.8

31.8

31.8

Somewhat disagree

4

18.2

18.2

50.0

Neither agree or disagree

5

22.7

22.7

72.7

Somewhat agree

4

18.2

18.2

90.9

Agree

2

9.1

9.1

100.0

Total

22

100.0

100.0

I rarely take the time to consider an applicant's objective on their resume.

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Valid

Disagree

4

18.2

18.2

18.2

Somewhat disagree

5

22.7

22.7

40.9

Somewhat agree

6

27.3

27.3

68.2

Agree

7

31.8

31.8

100.0

Total

22

100.0

100.0

Objective statements are just advice that college career centers give students.


		Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent
Valid	Disagree	1	4.5	4.5	4.5
	Somewhat disagree	4	18.2	18.2	22.7
	Neither agree or disagree	6	27.3	27.3	50.0
	Somewhat agree	4	18.2	18.2	68.2
	Agree	7	31.8	31.8	100.0
	Total	22	100.0	100.0

Every resume should have an objective statement.


		Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent
Valid	Disagree	13	59.1	59.1	59.1
	Somewhat disagree	4	18.2	18.2	77.3
	Neither agree or disagree	2	9.1	9.1	86.4
	Somewhat agree	3	13.6	13.6	100.0
	Total	22	100.0	100.0

I will not look at a resume if there is no objective.

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Valid

Disagree

19

86.4

86.4

86.4

Neither agree or disagree

1

4.5

4.5

90.9

Somewhat agree

1

4.5

4.5

95.5

Agree

1

4.5

4.5

100.0

Total

22

100.0

100.0

I quickly skim objectives as I scan resumes.

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Valid

Disagree

2

9.1

9.1

9.1

Neither agree or disagree

4

18.2

18.2

27.3

Somewhat agree

6

27.3

27.3

54.5

Agree

10

45.5

45.5

100.0

Total

22

100.0

100.0

The Significance of Task Significance

2010-12-29T20:24:00.000-08:00

Summary by: Ian B. Mondrow

Task significance is defined as the perception that one's job has a positive impact on other people. Research on task significance has been limited because many studies focuses on cross-sectional designs that were unsuccessful in proving task significance impacted job performance. Job performance is perceived effectiveness of one's behavior that work strive to achieve organization initiatives. In addition, there are limited studies that manipulate task significance with other job characteristics. Grant (2008) sets out to determine if relational mechanisms (specifically: perceived social impact & perceived social worth) and boundary conditions (specifically: conscientiousness and pro-social values) mediates task significance using three experiments.

Grant (2008) utilized a university fundraising organization as his first sample. 33 callers were split into 3 conditions that include: (1)a task significant condition where participants read 2 stories on how their job can impact others, (2) a personal benefit condition where participants read 2 stories about how the job benefitted the individual and (3) a control group with no manipulation. The data that was collected was measured pre-intervention and post-intervention. The results were quite promising. Results found that callers in the task significant condition increased the amount of pledges earned significantly, t(11) = 4.60, p = .001. The control group and personal benefit group showed no significant improvement in the post-implementation. The task significant group continued to shine as they showed an increase in the amount of money earned following the intervention, t(11) = 4.51, p =.001. Once again, no significant improvement was present for the control group and the personal benefit group. Grant's initial study was a success in proving that task significance may actually positively impact job performance.

The researcher and his assistants return to the same fundraising organization, which had already experienced a full turnover of all staff. Before the intervention, all participants completed a self-assessment measuring conscientiousness and prosocial values (one's value of protecting and promoting the welfare of others). In addition, data regarding job performance was collected.Participants were split into two groups: control and task significance. Upon intervention, participants in the control group were asked to read about the organization's policies, while the task significance group read two stories portraying how the job has helped other people. Results show that [once again] the task significance group obtained more pledges than the control group, t(32) = 2.03, p = .05. A OLS regression indicated that individuals with high prosocial values had a strong effect when they encountered the task significance condition. Again, Grant (2008) has demonstrated that task significance can have a positive impact on job performance.

You may be thinking that this study is limited because it was conducted with the same organization. In fact, Grant (2008) conducted a similar study with lifeguards at public pools. In this study there was no control group, but a personal benefit group and task significance group. He found that lifeguards in the task significance group committed more hours to their job, were more likely to help, and experienced an increase in one's perceived social worth and social impact. Therefore, this study can be applied to a diverse population.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS
This study can make valuable contributions to training managers for performance evaluations. HR professionals can coach managers on utilizing a task significant outlook when addressing areas for improvement (for an individual employee). According to this study, if a manager informs an employee how their improved performance could help others, the employee is likely to understand the value of the specific task. To be most effective, the manager must provide this logic for each individual task (instead of the overall position) that requires improvement.

As humans, we want to know that we are valuable. Therefore, by providing feedback based on task significance, one can see how their performance can positively impact the organization and its stakeholders.

Reference: Grant, A.M. (2008). The significance of task significance: Job performance effects, relational mechanisms and boundary conditions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 198-124.

The Ethical Dilemma of Consulting as an Industrial Psychologist*

2010-12-26T10:27:00.001-08:00

I was very excited to secure a position in KPMG's new People & Change division within Advisory. Although my graduate program had trained me as if I was a consultant, I soon realized that academia and the business world are entirely different. Since I entered this position immediately after graduate school, I had maintained my high sense of ethics and it was important for me to maintain these standards in my career. I did not realize that I would soon be challenged by these beliefs.

My team was assigned to a change management project dedicated to an SAP implementation. Throughout the project, we met with a variety of departments within our client including Human Resources, Accounting, Purchasing and more. As I attended this meeting, I was alarmed by some of the operations implemented by the organization. While they were not illegal, the company could face prosecution if a lawsuit is filed.

I encountered one more incident where training was being discussed. My team and I were planning how to assess the organization's needs. It was determined that there were topics that require training for SAP but there were other knowledge, skills and abilities that required training for successful operation of the divisions. It alarmed me that my team members were not as concerned with these other needs.

I quickly learned why my concerns were not addressed. These items were not in our scope of work. We had proposed on specific components and to suggest additional proposals at this time would be counterproductive to the current project. In addition, these areas may not produce enough work or profit. As I continue my career within external consulting, I find myself holding back when something concerns me. Does this mean I am being unethical? In my standards, yes because I feel as an consultant with an Industrial/Organizational Psychology background, I have obligations to mention areas of concerns (even if we cannot address them).

Several factors may contribute to my ethical standards. First off, I am use to being in an internal position where it is easier to address concerns. As consultants, we have to be cautious with what we tell our clients. Second, my background in Industrial/Organizational Psychology instills a high sense of ethics because I was educated on the guidelines from Society for Industrial/Organizational Psychology (SIOP) and the American Psychological Association (APA). People coming from business school may not have as many guidelines to follow since psychology focuses on the well-being of the individual. Finally, I am new to consulting. I am merely an Associate at this time and the perception of "time" and "profit" may change as I progress in my professional career.

How does your perception of ethics affect your job?

*The term psychologist is used loosely in this article. In most cases, a Psychologist is an individual with a doctorate degree in Psychology. In terms of this topic, I use the term psychologist as someone with an educational background in psychology (regardless of degree level). I currently do not possess a doctorate.

Repealing of DADT can pave the way for equality

2010-12-23T14:12:00.000-08:00

Over 13,500 men and women were dishonorably discharged from the US Military as a result of President Clinton's "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" (DADT) legislation. What originally was intended to protect members of the GLBT community, ended up hurting them. That all came to a change in the December of 2010. Members of the GLBT community were starting to lose hope in President Obama in fear that he will never fight for equality. He proved them all wrong on December 22nd, when the legislation of DADT was finally repealed.

With DADT no longer in effect, the country is moving one step closer to equality regardless of sexual orientation. Currently, there is no Federal law preventing employers from terminating employees due to their sexual orientation. Some states offer protection but it is not universal across the US. One hopes that DADT will pave the way for the inclusion of sexual orientation in EEOC as a protected class. DADT was a large obstacle to overcome but now comes the time to protect every U.S. citizen regardless of his/her sexual orientation.

A Diversity-Friendly Holiday Party

2010-12-18T13:01:00.000-08:00

By: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

The holidays are a joyous time of view. From delicious foods to the anticipation of exchanging gifts. However, the holidays can be an offensive or neglected time for those that do not observe the holidays. Christmas has a tendency to obtain more attention than other holidays and thus Jews, Kwanzaa observers and Muslims are often overlooked. Just recently, my client held a holiday pot luck and my coworker decided to compose a Parody to "Twas the Night Before Christmas". Although the poem did not mention Christmas, the fact that it was based on a Christmas poem alarmed me, specifically since there were not other activities to cater to other religions. If employees feel excluded, it can have a negative effect on their commitment to the organization and their quality of work.

Given this incident, I felt it would be beneficial to compose a blog entry that emphasized how to coordinate a diversity-friendly holiday party. When planning holiday parties, I think the best mindset for any event coordinator should be "all or nothing." In other words, it is suggested that the party include all December holidays or not focus around any holidays.

Planning an inclusive holiday party is rather simple, it just takes extra thought. First off, decorations should include components from each holiday. Therefore, there can be Christmas lights/trees, Hanukkah dreidels, and a Kwanzaas Mishumaa Saba. In regards to activities, be sure that if one holiday is represented, that other activities are done to observe other holidays. The same rule applies to food. If holiday dishes are being made, be sure that the entrees of other cultures are included as well.

Hosting a non-denominational party is a simple alternative as well. Instead of holding a "holiday party", host an "employee appreciation party". This party does not focus on the holidays but rather the commitment and hard work on the employees. The decorations will not need to reflect the holiday season and employees will feel engaged by their employers.

Do not overlook the power of exclusion and inclusion. It is very easy to exclude other religions and cultures due to our own personal bias. It is important to understand that while Christmas or Hanukkah may be important to you, it may have no value to another employee. Religion is a sensitive topic for all and I imagine this post is likely offending someone. However, I want to emphasize that the purpose of any company party is not to celebrate the holiday but rather to enjoy the company of your coworkers and celebrate the hard work within the organization.

Effects of Retail Store Image Attractiveness and Self-Evaluated Job Performance on Employee Retention

2010-11-30T10:22:00.000-08:00

Summary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

The costs of a single hourly employee turning over will cost an organization approximately $3,000 to $10,000 (Turnover costs sack retailers, 2000; Gustafson, 2002 as cited in Yurchisin & Park, 2010). Within the retail industry, a sales associate average length of employment is only 80 days (Masters, 2004 as cited in Yurchisin & Park, 2010). This turnover results in customer complaints pertaining to poor customer service and employees with little knowledge or expertise of product knowledge. Previous studies have discovered that organizational commitment is a key factor in employee turnover and turnover has been found to positively correlate with job satisfaction. It was hypothesized that the attractiveness of an organization may be linked to an employee's commitment to the organization.

Yurchisin & Park (2010) were successful in obtaining surveys from 211 sales associates. Only 21.1% were identified as full-time employees. Unfriendly/Friendly , unorganized/organized, and unreliable/reliable from the semantic differential scales were used to obtain the perceived store image. Each of the items provided anchors to assist participants in selecting the correct adjective. Surveys also measured store image attractiveness, self-assessed job performance, internal job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intention to leave.

Results from the survey revealed that positive store image had a relationship with job satisfaction (t =6.25, p<.001) and organizational commitment (t =8.29, p < .001). An individual that had high self-assessed performance was more likely to have high internal job satisfaction (t = 5.01, p < .001) and a negative relationship with intention to leave. Both organizational commitment and intention to leave were positively related with internal job satisfaction. Finally, organizational commitment was found to have a negative effect on one's intention to leave.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS
This study reveals that while store attractiveness does increase job satisfaction and organizational commitment, one's self-assessment is crucial to determine if an employee is likely to leave. Therefore, it is important that managers are encouraging of their employees and are dedicated to the development of their staff. Once an employee's self-perceived performance increases, so will his/her job satisfaction and commitment to an organization. In turn, this will have a positive effect on the store image. From this, we can see that all these factors are connected. Employee satisfaction is not cut and dry but driven by a collection of factors. As HR Managers, we need to ensure that employees feel appreciated and that they feel they are successful in their job. By doing so, it is likely to lower turnover.

Source: Yurchisin, J. & Park, J. (2010). Effects of Retail Store Image Attractiveness and Self-Evaluated Job Performance on Employee Retention. Journal of Business Psychology, 25, 441-450.

Comparing Victim Attributes and Outcomes for Workplace Aggression and Sexual Harassment (Part 2)

2010-11-24T18:01:00.000-08:00

Summary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

Following their previous research, Hershcovis and Barling (2010) decide to conduct a meta-analysis using 112 studies and 134 independent samples. The authors of previous studies that used the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (SEQ) were contacted to reanalyze the data with merely a subcomponent of the SEQ. 82% of the samples were returned. Data was analyzed using Hunter Schmidt’s (1990 as cited by Hershcovis & Barling, 2010) for calculating weighted average reliabilities, adjusting for sample error, and measuring confidence intervals. Z tests were used to analyze independent correlations.

Results revealed that sexual harassment had a negative relationship with job satisfaction (r_c= -.29), coworker satisfaction (r_c= -.35), supervisor satisfaction (r_c= -.34), affective commitment (r_c= - .29), and psychological wellbeing (r_c= -.28). Studies continued to show that sexual harassment had positive relationships with turnover (r_c=.21), job stress (r_c=.21) and work withdrawal (r_c=.29). All of the correlations mentioned above were statistically significant with a probability less than .01. The author fails to mention that while the correlations are significant, they are low correlations and thus may have weak effects.

Workplace aggression was found to have stronger relationships than sexual harassment. It was found to have negative correlations with job satisfaction (r_c= -.46), coworker satisfaction (r_c= -.37), supervisor satisfaction (r_c= -.49), affective commitment (r_c= -.40) and psychological wellbeing (r_c= -.40). Positive correlations for workplace aggression were present for turnover (r_c=.39), job stress (r_c=.32) and work withdrawal (r_c=.19). All correlations had a probability less than .05.

As already demonstrated with the correlations, Z-tests comparisons revealed that workplace aggression had stronger negative outcomes than sexual harassment in job satisfaction, supervisor satisfaction, affective commitment, psychological wellbeing, and turnover and job stress. No significant difference was present for coworker satisfaction. Work withdrawal had a stronger effect with sexual harassment than workplace aggression.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS

As previously mentioned in Part 1 of this summary, this research shows that workplace aggressive has effects that are far more influential than sexual harassment. This may be a result of the lack of action that is taken to address this issue. Sexual harassment is a sensitive topic and organizations attempt to correct the harassment quickly to avoid lawsuits. Workplace aggression,however, can not be easily proven and there is no legal implications of an employee that is rude or excludes other individuals.

Organizations can prevent these negative affects of by implementing a policy stating no tolerance towards workplace aggression or sexual harassment. For this policy to be effective, the organization must investigate all claims of workplace aggression and avoid discrediting any accusations without proof.

Regardless, sexual harassment and workplace aggression will continue to be part of our society. We do not live in an ideal world and some people have no guilt for their actions. As HR practioners, we should communicate disapproval of any of these actions and the consequences associated with these actions. We should also take immediate action once any complaint is received. These issues should not go unaddressed or else it could have negative effects on company culture and personnel.

Source: Herschcovis, M.S., Barling, J. (2010). Comparing victim attributions and outcomes for workplace aggression and sexual harassment. American Psychological Association, 95 (5), 874-888.

Comparing Victim Attributions and Outcomes for Workplace Aggression & Sexual Harassment (Part 1)

2010-11-22T16:29:00.000-08:00

Summary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

Sexual harassment has had a large presence in male-dominated organizations. It is believed that it occurs in these organizations because women are holding positions that were traditionally filled by men. Surprisingly, if a woman had masculine traits, then she is more susceptible to sexual harassment. Hershcovis and Barling (2010) suggest that sexual harassment degrades an individuals gender and thus lowers his/her status/credibility. When this occurs, female victims view the incident as an attack on their gender instead of on themselves. Sexual harassment on men is far less threatening and may even reinforce their male gender role.

Unlike sexual harassment, workplace aggression does not focus on one's gender or classification. It is equally threatening to both men and women as it crushes one's status or need to feel a part of a group. Examples of workplace aggression include social exclusion, gossiping, yelling, and rude behaviors, which all suggest that the individual is of lower status. These behaviors often focus on individual characteristics instead of one's member to a social group (i.e. gender).

Hershcovis and Barling (2010) set out to research the attributable differences between sexual harassment and workplace aggression. An online survey was administered to 117 participants. Participants were provided a story that differed based on the following dimensions: gender dominant workplace vs. gender neutral workplace (equal distribution among men & women) and workplace aggression vs. sexual harassment. Participants were asked to rate the scenario on how descriptive it was of sexual harassment and workplace aggression on a 1-5 scale. They were also asked to allocate the blame based on a hundred points between themselves and the perpetrator. In addition, survey respondents answered questions evaluating internal attribution, personal attribution, gender attribution, external attribution, aggression ambiguity, and severity. Gender was also collected as a controlled variable.

A multivariate analysis revealed a significance between workplace aggression and sexual harassment, F(6,98) = 14.80, p<.001. It was also found that participants in the gender-dominant scenario were more likely to make an internal attribution in the workplace aggression scenario (M = 2.72) than the sexual harassment scenario ( M = 1.67). Participants that were part of the workplace aggression scenario were more likely to take the encounter personally than those in the sexual harassment scenario. Those that partook in the sexual harassment scenario were more likely to blame their bully's attitudes, F (1,108) = 19.01, p < .01, on their gender and account them for the blame, F (1,108) = 8.92, p < .01. Participants that were in the workplace aggression scenario were more likely to blame themselves instead of the bully than those in the sexual harassment scenario. Gender distribution within the organization had no effect on sexual harassment but participants in the workplace aggression sample were more likely to make a gender attribution than in the gender-neutral environment.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS

Based on the findings in this study, HR practitioners need to be conscious of the fact that victims of workplace aggression are likely to place the blame on themselves. Therefore, when counseling an individual, it is important to emphasize that it is not their fault and that bullying does exist in the organization. In addition, the findings show that bullying can be equally offensive as sexual harassment and should not be taken lightly. HR professionals should examine complaints thoroughly to ensure that bullying does not escalate.

In regards to sexual harassment, victims are likely to blame the harasser. Which they should! It is vital to understand that no employee is responsible for being a victim of sexual harassment. Regardless of one's clothing, gender, or comments, sexual advances are not acceptable in the workplace and every complaint should be investigated immediately.

Source: Herschcovis, M.S., Barling, J. (2010). Comparing victim attributions and outcomes for workplace aggression and sexual harassment. American Psychological Association, 95 (5), 874-888.

Why are women paid less than men, but given higher raises?

2010-11-15T19:49:00.000-08:00

Summary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

Gender differences in pay has been an ongoing issue for decades. Its saddening to think that these differences still exists but an abundance of previous research supports the notion. Regardless of industry, occupation or other variables, women only receive a wage 88% that of men (Blau et al., 1998). Previous research offers a variety of reasons for this and they include: part-time vs. full-time, employment sector, industry and more. There are also arguments that woman receive reduced starting wage. Some researchers believe that women are less aggressive when it comes to negotiating salary but this is a controversial topic in itself.

Although it does not compensate for a slashed wages, past studies have found that women receive higher pay increases. Redyced stereotyping may be the result of these increases. Reduced stereotyping occurs when a manager does not have a sufficient amount of information to evaluate the individual and therefore base his/her decisions on stereotypes. When enough information is present, reduced stereotype is less likely to occur. Structural features may also be a factor in this gender difference. Many organization base pay increases on a performance rating and their level in their job grade. In this structure, employees that are paid less are eligible for higher pay increases than employees with higher salaries. Therefore, if women start off with lower salaries, they will be more likely to have higher pay increases.

Harris, Gilbreath and Sunday (2002) decided to put these theories to test. Using previous data from a government-owned, contractor-operated nuclear waste facility in the united states. 218 participants were randomly selected to participate; 174 were men and 44 were women.

In their analysis, it was found that seniority, education and performance ratings did not differ between men & women. However, compared to men, women had significantly lower salaries (on average about $1000 less per month) and were in lower grades. When including job grade, education level and seniority as variables in their analysis, it was found that salary differences decreased but did not put an end to the salary differences between genders. On an annual basis, women earned a range of between $1080 (in 1991) and $2004 (in 1993) less than men.

It was found that women received pay increases that were, on average, 5% greater than men. These differences diminished once job grade and base pay were added as variables. Furthermore, performance ratings did not impact the differences between gender.

There are several limitations that must be considered in this study:

First and foremost, this study is about 8 years old.
The organization was new and employed individuals for only 4 years.
The organization work with government contracts and therefore may have strict anti-discrimination laws to abide by.
The time frame that was examined was only two years.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS

This picture does not reflect my personal opinion.
It is clearly a controversial image, but I like the
message at the bottom.

How can HR professionals avoid pay differences as a result of gender? This is a tough question and an issue that thousands have been fighting against for decades. First and foremost, ensure that both men and women are offered the initial starting wage. At that point, it is their responsibility to negotiate salary within the range.

To avoid gender differences in pay increases, pay increases should be based on tenure or performance reviews. Having a structured pay increase guide that correlates with performance appraisal goals can assist in dismantling this difference. In addition, ensuring that managers are provided with sufficient information on their employees will ensure that they do not experience reduced discrimination. Most importantly, always base performance appraisals on a job analysis. For a performance appraisal to be effective, it must be based on the criteria that one needs to be successful in this job.

I am hoping that these pay increases and base salary differences diminish in time.

Source: Harris, M.M., Gilbreath, B., Sunday, J.A. (2002). Why are women paid less than men, but given higher raises. Journal of Business and Psychology, 16(4), 499-514.

Organizational Dual Career Ladder

2010-11-09T18:45:00.000-08:00

Summary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

I was recently reading SHRM's HR Magazine when I came across a brief article regarding dual career ladders. A career ladder is the path that an individual takes to grow within his/her position. Often these career ladders only follow one path/trend. As an individual follows this path, he/she gains mores responsibility in managing others and teams.

Unlike a traditional career ladder, a dual career ladder provides an alternative for qualified employees that have little interest in managing others or being a supervisor. One can not ignore the benefits this program provides, including: increased retention (especially among senior members) and continuous development of employees. These programs are often found in jobs that require professional training and expertise. Furthermore, jobs known for rapid innovation and/or employees receiving national awards or a license are more likely to offer the dual career ladder. This type of ladder also provides organizations with a competitive advantage over traditional organizations and is a method that effectively attract talent of all ages and levels.

Fiester (2010) provides a series of steps in creating a program, and they are as follows:

Determine evaluation criteria for the job.
Determine the proficiency of criteria needed for each level in a ladder.
Develop job descriptions for each position on the ladder.
Use market data to benchmark salary ranges for each level.
Ensure equity among company personnel.
Regularly communicate the program, especially during implementation.

Much like any career ladder, a significant amount of maintenance is required. Not only must one maintain the traditional path but also this alternative path. It should be emphasized that this is not meant as an alternative for the traditional career ladder but instead an additional path.

Source: Fiester, M. (November 2010). What is meant by the term "dual career ladder?" HR Magazine.

Credit Checks in Employee Selection (Part 2 of 2): Applicant Reactions

2010-11-08T19:34:00.000-08:00

Summary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

Selection tests that have little face validity can kill an applicant's attraction to a job opening or organization. Using a sample of 126 students. Nielsen and Kuhn decide to evaluate the perception of credit reports as a selection tool.

Participants were give one of two job descriptions. Both of the descriptions provided a summary of the job and the organization's history. The only difference between the two documents was that one of them mentioned handling money as one of the job's responsibilities. Participants were randomly assigned to each group and informed that they were invited to an interview where the hiring manager asked him/her to sign a waiver permitting a credit check. They were asked a series of questions of a 7-point scale.

In general, it was found that participants had negative reactions to the credit check as they felt it was unfair, did not predict performance, was not related to the job and was an invasion of privacy. They did believe that employers use credit checks as a way to verify responsibility and reliability in job candidates Including budgeting in the job description did not increase the credibility of the credit report.

However, 51% of the participants were confident that their credit history would appeal to the hiring organization. Unfortunately, individuals did not feel they knew what a credit report would cover (M = 2.12, SD = .78). Those who emphasized an understanding of credit checks were more likely to perceive them as a fair selection tool, F = 10.22, p <.01, and had a significant level of face validity, F = 7.11, p < .01. There was no relationship between credit history knowledge and perceived accuracy, invasiveness or predictive validity.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN RESOURCE (HR) PROFESSIONALS

Based on this study's findings, HR professionals should be cautious in utilizing credit checks. Appliants appear questionable in the use of credit checks and feel that it is intrusive. Content in job descriptions provides no variation on this outlook. Therefore, it may be beneficial for hiring managers to explain the usage of credit checks and how the information will be utilized in the hiring process. Managers should also encourage job applicants to ask for a copy of the report to make them feel more at ease. Many times, applicants are handed the consent form but have no real conversation of the credit checks. It appears that elaborating on its use and how it will benefit the position can overcome any fears shared by applicants.

Source: Nielsen, M.L., and Kuhn, K.M. (2009). Late payments and leery applicants: credit checks as a selection test. Employ Respons Rights J, 21, 115-130.

Credit Checks in Employee Selection (Part 1 of 2)

2010-11-07T20:12:00.000-08:00

Summary By: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

A selection test is a process that employers implement to hire job candidates or make promotion decisions. In national survey of retail employer, it was found that 48% of the participants utilized credit checks as a selection tool in 2005 (Hollinger & Langton, 2006 as cited in Nielsen & Kuhn, 2009). This number has likely increased since then. Unlike most selection test, a credit check does not ask candidates any questions and does not allow for any answers. Credit checks provide information on an individuals financials including credit cards, mortgage debt, payment history, previous addresses and previous employers. Unlike traditional credit checks, an employer will not receive any calcuated credit scores. The date of birth is also not included. Some employers use credit reports to merely verify employment history and previous addresses, while others use them as a formal selection tool.

Credit checks have become a standard process in hiring for many organization and therefore it is vital for every individual to know the legal implications behind this process. According to the Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA), an employer cannot check one's credit score without obtaining signed permission from the candidate, offering the candidate a copy of the report and inform individuals if the report had any basis for not hiring/promoting them. In addition, federal law prohibits employers from discriminating against an individual has filed for bankruptcy. Since a credit report is not a series of questions, it is not possible to establish criterion validity and therefore it can be difficult to prove that the report is related to a job. As a result, some states have laws stating that credit reports can not be obtained unless "substantially job-related" to the position. In 2007, this law was passed in the State of Washington as Senate Bill 5827.

There are several perspectives as to why credit checks are used in the selection process: (1) employees facing financial issues will be more likely to steal and (2) the credit check can be representative of one's consciousness and responsibility. Currently, there are no studies validating that credit checks are related to any personality traits but previous studies have found that credit scores have a positive correlation with counterproductive employee behavior and absenteeism.

To make matters more complicated, credit checks may increase an employers probability of adverse impact as some minorities are more likely to have poor credit histories (Gallagher, 2006 as cited in Nielsen & Kuhn, 2009). If adverse impact is present, employers must prove that a credit check predicts successful job performance. Furthermore, majority of credit reports contain one or more mistakes with one out of four containing a serious error. Therefore, the information may not even be correct!

CLICK Here for Part 2....

Source: Nielsen, M.L., and Kuhn, K.M. (2009). Late payments and leery applicants: credit checks as a selection test. Employ Respons Rights J, 21, 115-130.

From I/O Psychologist to HR Generalist (Part 2 of 2)

2010-11-01T17:00:00.000-07:00

Summary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

Shifting into an Human Resource (HR) can be a benefit for both the Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologist and the organization. It allows an opportunity for the Psychologist to learn about the organization and develop future skills. As an HR Generalist, an I/O Psychologist can learn about the organizations operations and then return to the organizational development department with new skills and insight about the business.

Shifting into this position can be a bit of a challenge because an I/O Psychologist may not have the background to address all questions and concerns. While the information can be found in the company, the Psychologist will experience a dramatic learning curve. One drastic change for Industrial/Organizational Psychologist is loss of power and/or resources. Generalists often have to assume many responsibilities and may need to designate Specialists to assist them, unfortunately, a Generalist has limited control as to how he/she can utilize a specialist. This is a shock for many Psychologists who are use being viewed as the expert in an area and having control. Furthermore, they must learn to let go of their I/O background as it is not required for all HR Functions (but useful in staffing and other areas). An I/O Psychologist should also that HR uses different terminology and it would be helpful to familiarize oneself with the differences.

Although the previous paragraphs have focused on the downsides of the Generalist role, there are many advantages. First of all, the interaction with people will grow dramatically. Plus an HR Generalist interacts with people from different departments on a regular basis. Furthermore, the position offers a variety of Career paths including becoming a specialist or working towards a Director position. The role also have higher levels of compensation with tenure.

Being an HR Generalist is not a challenge for an individual with a background in Industrial/Organizational Psychology. Instead, it is when one shifts from an I/O Psychology focused career into HR. Much of their responsibilities and interactions change as a result of this shift and the individual must learn to adapt to these roles. It is important to emphasize that I/O Psychologists make excellent HR Generalist. This article focuses on individuals that have been in the I/O Psychology field and want to shift into a HR Generalist role.

Original Source: Martin, S.L., Latham, V.M. (2010). Moving into an HR generalist roll: a good career move? The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist. 47(4), 29-34.

Picture extracted from: http://rejuvination.me/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/careerchange.jpg

Becoming an HR Generalist (Part 1 of 2)

2010-10-31T19:20:00.000-07:00

Summary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

A Human Resources (HR) Generalist is someone who is the point of contact for all personnel issues. Unlike a specialist, a Generalist is expected to be knowledgeable in all HR functions including hiring, organizational development, compensation/benefits, and the well-being of employees. He/she is often assigned to one or more departments within an organization (depending on the company size). This position is often a junior position to the highest HR position in the organization. Working in a matrix structure, this individual usually reports to two individuals: a senior HR Manager and the department head.

They are a variety of career growth options once an individual is employed as an HR Generalist. He/she has the opportunity to grow into a separate specialist role focusing specifically on recruitment/hiring, compensation or employee relations. Staying within the HR Generalist role can also provide developmental responsibilities by taking on more responsibilities or managing other HR Generalist.

Being an HR Generalist has both its ups and downs. The great thing about being an HR Generalist is that the job entails a high level of variety. An individual in this position is exposed to different aspects of HR as well as playing an active role in the organization's development. Those who play an HR Generalist role have also identified that the position creates a sense of identity because they often are involved with all levels of the organization and are engaged in the company's growth. Finally, the position allows the opportunity to impact the lives of the employees. Generalists have a say in who is hired, compensation of employees and the termination of employees.

With advantages, comes disadvantages. Moving into the role of an HR Generalist can be extremely stressful because one is expected to learn a large amount of information with a little amount of time. Furthermore, the position includes responsibilities that are not always pleasant. In fact, some of the responsibilities can be heart breaking, such as conducting individual and large-scale terminations. It should also be noted that the position requires tasks that be repetitive and simple including providing benefits information, updating information systems and/or getting the appropriate documentation filled out.

Before pursuing an HR generalist opening, it is recommended to research the company to determine what is expected from an HR Generalist as it can vary from company to company. The job description should also be reviewed carefully to understand the organization's expectations of a Generalist.

To be Continued.....
Part 2: From an Industrial/Organizational Psychologist to an HR Role. Available October 2nd, 2010.

Original Source: Martin, S.L., Latham, V.M. (2010). Moving into an HR generalist roll: a good career move? The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist. 47(4), 29-34.

Picture from: http://www.staffordshire.police.uk/media/images/largeheaderimages/20138/20175/Human-Resources.jpg

There's a Policy for That: Sexual Harassment

2010-10-25T17:26:00.000-07:00

Source: Hertzog, J.L., Wright, D., & Beat, D. (2008). There's a policy for that: a comparison of the organizational culture of workplaces reporting incidents of sexual harassment. Behavir and Social Issues, 17, 169-181.

Summary and Commentary by: Ian B. Mondrow, M.A.

Unfortunately, recent research by Hertzog, Write and Beat (2008) reveals that policy alone is not enough to remove sexual harassment from the workplace. Their study utilized data from 303 companies included in the 2002 National Organizational Survey. All of these companies had policies related to sexual harassment. Out of this sample, 29% of the companies have had a formal complaint filed against them for sexual harassment. These companies were found to experience patterns of negative workplace behavior compared to organizations that did not have a formal complaint. They were also more likely to have occurrences of sexual harassment.

Most the organizations in the study were found to offer training to managers and employees. However, organizations that had claims against them were more likely to offer classes on sexual harassment, workplace violence, conflict resolution, and overcoming negative behaviors.

Since policies alone are not enough to prevent sexual harassment, the researchers suggest implementing behavioral interventions that aim to increase reporting behaviors and reduce sexual harassment behaviors. Merely implementing a policy does not change the organizational behavior, it only protects the company from liability.

IMPLICATIONS FOR HR PROFESSIONALS

A policy alone is not sufficient in preventing sexual harassment from occurring in the workplace. The policy sets the foundation and then it is up to managers to communicate and support its initiative. To create a culture that reduces the chance of sexual harassment behaviors, the organization should continually offer training on the topic as well as communicate [on a regular basis] that any type of negative workplace behavior is not accepted in the company.

As HR professionals, we should ensure that the message of the policy is clear and that all accusations of sexual harassment should be investigated. Ignoring any accusations put the organization at risk for a legal complaint. Sexual harassment should not be ignored by any individual and all complaints or concerns should be taken seriously, regardless of the source.